@phdthesis{Wirkner2017,
  author    = {Janine Wirkner},
  title     = {Modulating emotional memories: Influence of stress and interference learning on brain potentials during encoding and retrieval},
  journal    = {Modulation des emotionalen Ged{\"a}chtnisses: Einfluss von Stress und Interferenzlernen auf ereigniskorrelierte Potentiale w{\"a}hrend Enkodierung und Abruf},
  url       = {https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:gbv:9-002741-4},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {There is multiple evidence that emotionally arousing events are preferentially processed, and better remembered than neutral events. In the present dissertation I investigated whether those strong emotional memories are affected by acute and chronic stress. Moreover, I was interested in whether already established emotional memories can be changed by behavioral intervention. According to the modulation hypothesis, emotionally arousing events promote attention and memory processes via noradrenergic and glucocorticoid actions. Recent models suggest that stress hormones differentially impact mnemonic processing, namely encoding, (re-) consolidation and memory retrieval, depending on timing and duration of the stressor relative to the learning experience. Acute stress around the time of encoding has been found to enhance memory, whereas chronic stress has been associated with memory impairments. Furthermore, consolidated memories are not resistant to modifications. Following reactivation, memories can turn into an unstable state and undergo a process called reconsolidated in order to persist. During this vulnerable state, memories are prone to modification, for instance by pharmacological blockade or interference learning. Here, the modulation of newly formed emotional and neutral memories as well as existing emotional and neutral memories was investigated in a well-established picture viewing and recognition memory paradigm using behavioral and neurophysiological measures (event-related potential, ERPs). More elaborative processing of emotional, relative to neutral stimuli has been related to the late positive potential (LPP). During encoding of emotional and neutral pictures, enhanced LPPs (starting at about 400 ms after stimulus onset) are usually observed for emotionally arousing relative to neutral pictures, indicating preferential attention allocation and processing. During recognition, correctly recognized old items evoke larger ERP amplitudes than correctly identified new items. This difference, the ERP old/new effect, was used to measure mnemonic processing during retrieval. The ERP old/new effect over centro-parietal sensor sites (400-800 ms) has been associated with recollection processes, and is enhanced for emotional, compared to neutral materials. Three studies are presented, that investigated 1) the influence of acute stress prior to encoding on long-term memory and its neural correlates, 2) the impact of chronic stress on encoding and memory, and 3) the influence of interference on already established memories (reconsolidation), always contrasting emotionally arousing and neutral scenes. Study 1 investigated subsequent recognition memory after encoding following acute stress using a socially evaluated cold pressure test, while study 2 tested the influence of chronic stress investigating breast cancer survivors about two years after cancer treatment. In study 3, one day after encoding, reconsolidation of the reactivated picture memory was targeted with an interfering learning task. In all three studies, recognition memory was tested one week later. High-density electroencephalograms (EEGs; 257 electrodes) were recorded to measure brain potentials. The results showed, in line with previous research, that emotionally arousing scenes were preferentially processed, as indicated by larger LPPs, and were better remembered than neutral scenes, as indicated by enhanced memory performance and larger ERP old/new differences. Experiencing acute stress prior to encoding enhanced the centro-parietal ERP old/new effect for emotionally arousing pictures at recognition, corroborating that acute stress facilitates memory for emotional scenes (Study 1). In contrast, attenuated LPPs for unpleasant pictures and impaired memory performance for arousing pictures were observed in breast cancer survivors (Study 2), indicating altered attention to emotion and subsequent emotional memory storage in chronically stressed individuals. When memory reactivation was followed by an interfering learning task, recognition memory and ERP old/new differences were attenuated for emotionally arousing scenes, selectively, showing the possibility that emotional memories might be modulated by behavioral interventions (Study 3). The results of all three studies are discussed and integrated into a model of memory modulation by stress and interference. The results highlight the importance of understanding the role of emotional arousal in the processes of memory formation, retrieval and reconsolidation. Moreover, shedding light on the differential effects of acute and chronic stress, interference and their possible interactions might help to prevent and even modify impairing memories that are one of the major concerns in stress- and fear-related mental disorders.},
  language  = {en}
}