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External effects of agglomeration and human capital is a more than a century old research topic. Their theory and empirics have evolved over time to interact with more economic factors and to dig more deeply into heterogeneous effects, whose empirical evidence remains scarce, especially for developing countries. Furthermore, local human capital and agglomeration are often introduced in separate models rather than a single model in explaining productivity. These limitations motivate the implementation of this thesis. To achieve this, firm-level panel data from Vietnam is employed. This developing country provides an interesting case because its level of agglomeration and human capital is still low but its socio-economic conditions are highly dynamic with the high growth rates of urbanization and university-educated labor force (production inputs) as well as income (production output), in comparison with developed countries. The heart of this thesis lies on its chapter 2 and chapter 3, which are summarized as follows.
Chapter 2 aims at finding which agglomeration forces play the dominant role in affecting firms’ productivity and how agglomeration induces unequal influences across various firm characteristics. To achieve this, a six-year panel data set is employed, and the estimation is based on a production function that the left-hand side is firm’s total factor productivity while the righthand side is local technology which contains the agglomeration terms. In the first step of regression, consistent values of productivity are obtained following a strategy that combines the control function approach with the instrumental variables technique to tackle endogeneity caused by a possibility that firms choose their production inputs based on their productivity. In the second step, log of productivity is regressed on agglomeration proxies and controls, using multiple fixedeffects terms to control for unobserved factors and local shocks. Estimated results show that urbanization rather than specialization has a positive impact on productivity. Besides, the agglomeration effects are stronger for foreign-owned, small-sized, or young firms.
Chapter 3 shows attempts to find evidence of human capital externalities along with urbanization economies, given that the two external terms are rarely placed together in a single specification in literature. The estimation is implemented based on a production function whose context is an unique spatial equilibrium resulting from migration behaviors of entrepreneurs and workers. In this function, the externalities play the role of a region-specific productivity shifter. The model is regressed primarily with the instrumental variables technique to tackle possible identification problems. Between the two external terms, the resulting estimates confirm only the existence of urbanization economies. However, human capital externalities are found to be strong and significant in high-tech industries, implying that the effects of local human capital are very heterogeneous across different technological levels.
Weltumspannende Krisen, die alle signifikanten Wirtschaftsnationen vollständig erfassen, sind eher selten. Vielmehr blieben in der Vergangenheit schwerwiegende Krisen überwiegend auf einen Staat oder Region begrenzt. Mit Ausbruch der Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise in den Vereinigten Staaten kam es zur sukzessiven Ansteckung entwickelter und aufstrebender Volkswirtschaften. Als Reaktion darauf senkte die US Zentralbank die Federal Fund Rate von 4,75% im September 2007 auf 0-0,25% im Dezember 2008. Zur Unterstützung konventioneller geldpolitischer Maßnahmen wurde in den USA verstärkt auf Forward Guidance und zusätzlich das Large Scale Asset Purchase Program als unkonventionelle Maßnahme gesetzt. In ähnlicher Weise reagierten die Zentralbanken des europäischen Währungsraums, Großbritanniens und Japans. Während die expansive Geldpolitik in den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften eine sukzessive Zinssenkung bis zum jetzigen Niedrigzinsniveau auslöste, blieb in den Schwellenländern der G20 das Zinsniveau zunächst unverändert und resultierte in einem Anstieg der Zinsdifferenz zwischen den Ländergruppen. Infolgedessen verstärkten Investoren aus den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften bei der Suche nach zinstragenden Aktiva ihr Engagement in den Schwellenländern der G 20. Gleichzeitig veränderte sich als Reaktion auf die Finanzkrise die Risikowahrnehmung der Investoren aus entwickelten Volkswirtschaften auf unerwartete Informationen und negative Preisentwicklungen. Eine Umkehr der Zinsentwicklung in Verbindung mit einer Stagnation bzw. Rezession in den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften kann Kapitalabzug aus den Schwellenländern der G 20 auslösen. Der Einsatz von weitreichenden Kapitalverkehrskontrollen zur Abschwächung oder Verhinderung des Kapitalabzuges durch die betroffenen Staaten kann aufgrund krisenbedingter Preisverfälle zu schweren Verlusten der Investoren und erhebliche Auswirkungen auf die Finanzmärkte der entwickelten Volkswirtschaften besitzen.
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of culture on consumers’ attitudes toward Cause-Related marketing between Iran and Germany by answering the following questions:
A: What is consumer’s response concerning (1) skepticism toward CRM claim (2) attitude toward the CRM strategy, (3) attitude toward CRM brand personality, (4) attitude toward the CRM brand image and (5) CRM purchase intention (6) Warm glow? ; B: Do consumers respond differently to Cause-Related Marketing in Iran in comparison to Germany? C: Can cultural characteristics of the countries explain these differences? To answer the research questions, hypotheses were developed based on the literature which shape the research framework, in total containing 17 hypotheses. The data was gathered by questionnaire to make the research quantitative. By using convenience sampling, 564 responses were generated. The data was analysed by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and independent student t-test. Potential differences between Iran and Germany as well as moderation analysis are tested by critical ratio difference test as well as chi-square difference test using multiple- group analysis in AMOS. The results showed the importance of culture in applying CRM strategy. It can be said that CRM in a collectivistic culture like Iran can be successful as well as individualistic country like Germany. Although Iranian consumers were less familiar with this strategy, the benefits of CRM were similar in case of brand image and higher for purchase intention. The research found that emotions play a stronger role in Iran and it is more critical to evoke proper emotions by CRM campaign.