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Overexpression of polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) has been found in many different types of cancers. With its essential role in cell proliferation, PLK1 has been determined to be a broad-spectrum anti-cancer target. In this study, 3D-QSAR, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were applied on a series of novel pteridinone derivatives as PLK1 inhibitors to discover anti-cancer drug candidates. In this work, three models—CoMFA (Q² = 0.67, R² = 0.992), CoMSIA/SHE (Q² = 0.69, R² = 0.974), and CoMSIA/SEAH (Q² = 0.66, R² = 0.975)—of pteridinone derivatives were established. The three models that were established gave R²(pred) = 0.683, R²(pred) = 0.758, and R²(pred) = 0.767, respectively. Thus, the predictive abilities of the three proposed models were successfully evaluated. The relations between the different champs and activities were well-demonstrated by the contour chart of the CoMFA and CoMSIA/SEAH models. The results of molecular docking indicated that residues R136, R57, Y133, L69, L82, and Y139 were the active sites of the PLK1 protein (PDB code: 2RKU), in which the more active ligands can inhibit the enzyme of PLK1. The results of the molecular dynamic MD simulation diagram were obtained to reinforce the previous molecular docking results, which showed that both inhibitors remained stable in the active sites of the PLK1 protein (PDB code: 2RKU) for 50 ns. Finally, a check of the ADME-Tox properties of the two most active molecules showed that molecular N° 28 could represent a good drug candidate for the therapy of prostate cancer diseases.
Cyanobakterien sind eine vielversprechende Quelle an strukturell diversen und biologisch hochaktiven Naturstoffen für die Entwicklung neuer Wirkstoffe. Bislang konnte die Strukturklasse der [7.7]Paracyclophane nur in fädigen Cyanobakterien der Gattungen Nostoc und Cylindrospermum nachgewiesen werden. Vorangegangene Arbeiten zeigten, dass gerade die Carbamidocyclophane chemisch und biologisch interessante Verbindungen darstellen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden vor allem die Carbamidocyclophane produzierenden Cyanobakterien Nostoc sp. CAVN2 und Nostoc sp. CAVN10 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der strukturellen Vielfalt an biosynthetisierten Metaboliten sowie deren antimikrobieller Aktivität umfassend charakterisiert. Um das biosynthetische Potenzial auf der metabolischen Ebene zu untersuchen, wurde im Vorfeld eine spezifische [7.7]Paracyclophan-Analytik etabliert, die skalierbare Methoden für alle Aufarbeitungsschritte beinhaltet. Die Optimierung endete in einem validierten sowie arbeits- und zeitsparenden einstufigen Extraktions- und Aufreinigungsverfahren mittels eines Zweiphasensystems und anschließender LC-UV-Analyse, um biologische Proben reproduzierbar zu analysieren und enthaltene Carbamidocyclophane zu quantifizieren. Kultivierungsstudien zum Einfluss der Temperatur an metabolisch aktiven und defizienten Nostoc-sp.-CAVN10-Kulturen ergaben einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen der Biomassezunahme und der Temperaturerhöhung. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten die einzelnen Carbamidocyclophan-Gehalte ein eher differenzierteres Bild über die verschiedenen Wachstumsphasen und Temperaturen hinweg. Da nur eine geringe Korrelation zwischen der spezifischen Wachstumsrate und der spezifischen Carbamidocyclophan-Produktionsrate ermittelt werden konnte, ist eine Relevanz dieser Verbindungen für den primären Zellstoffwechsel nicht ersichtlich. Bei Kultivierungsexperimenten an Nostoc sp. CAVN2 hatte der Zusatz von Chlorid- oder Bromid-Ionen eine drastische Erhöhung der Basalrate und Strukturdiversität der [7.7]Paracyclophane zur Folge. Das gleichzeitige Vorhandensein beider Halogenide im Medium zeigte kompetitive Effekte, wobei Chlorid als Substrat für den Halogenierungsprozess favorisiert wurde. Mit Hilfe eigens entwickelter Kultivierungsprozedere und Separierungsstrategien konnten insgesamt 25 Verbindungen aus Stamm CAVN2 isoliert und strukturell aufgeklärt werden. Dabei bilden die Carbamidocyclophane H–U neue chlorierte, bromierte und nicht halogenierte Naturstoffe. Zusätzlich konnten aus Stamm Cylindrospermum stagnale PCC 7417 neben den bekannten Cylindrocyclophanen A, B und D die drei neuen Cylindrofridine A–C erhalten werden. Diese stellen den Cylindrocyclophanen strukturell eng verwandte lineare Mono- und Dialkylresorcinole dar. Die vergleichende Evaluierung der Bioaktivität von 30 Reinsubstanzen ergab, dass viele Verbindungen sehr starke antimikrobielle Aktivität gegen grampositive Bakterien zeigen – besonders gegen Antibiotika-resistente Kokken mit minimalen Hemmkonzentrationen von oftmals deutlich unter 1 µM. Dabei bedingten die verschiedenen Substituenten (Carbamoyl- und Acetoxy-Reste sowie Hydroxygruppen oder Halogene) z.T. signifikante Aktivitätsunterschiede. Die Zytotoxizität der [7.7]Paracyclophane ist vor allem an das Vorhandensein des Makrozyklus gebunden, da lineare Derivate (Cylindrofridine B/C) kaum biologisch aktiv waren. Eine Ausnahme stellt dabei das nicht zytotoxische, aber antimikrobiell aktive Cylindrocyclophan-D-Monomer Cylindrofridin A dar. Die phylogenetische Analyse der 16S-rDNA-Daten bestätigte die morphologisch-taxonomische Identifizierung der Stämme CAVN2 und CAVN10 als Cyanobakterien der Gattung Nostoc und ergab weiterhin, dass alle Carbamido- und Cylindrocyclophane produzierenden Nostoc-Stämme Bestandteil einer monophyletischen Gruppe sind, die phylogenetisch distinkt zu anderen [7.7]Paracyclophan-Produzenten ist. Des Weiteren konnten keine Nukleotidunterschiede zwischen Stamm CAVN2 und CAVN10 auf den untersuchten Markergen-Sequenzen festgestellt werden, was beide auf der phylogenetischen Ebene als identisch erscheinen lässt und sie somit nur metabolisch aufgrund der strukturellen Diversität und Quantität an [7.7]Paracyclophanen differenzierbar sind. Mit Hilfe von molekulargenetischen Analyseverfahren und bioinformatorischer Auswertung konnte in Stamm CAVN2 das Carbamidocyclophan-Biosynthesegencluster mit einer Gesamtgröße von ca. 26,9 kbp identifiziert werden. Dieses beinhaltet 13 offene Leserahmen (cabA-cabM), wobei das Gen cabL für eine putative Carbamoyltransferase codiert. Ein neuer Halogenase-Typ in Verbindung mit einer Tandem-ACP-Domänen-Struktur in der Typ I Polyketidsynthase CabD könnte für die Ausbildung halogenierter Derivate verantwortlich sein. Der Nachweis eines codierenden Bereichs mit Rieske-Domäne (cabM) lässt eine direkte oxidative intermolekulare Makrozyklisierung bei der Assemblierung vermuten.
Pentathiepins are cyclic polysulfides that exert antiproliferative and cytotoxic activity in cancer cells, induce oxidative stress and apoptosis, and potently inhibit GPx1. These properties render this class of compounds promising candidates for the development of anticancer drugs. However, the biological effects and how they intertwine to promote high cytotoxicity have not been systematically assessed throughout a panel of cancer cell lines from distinct tissues of origin. In this thesis, six novel pentathiepins were analyzed and constitute the second generation of compounds with additional properties such as fluorescence or improved water solubility to facilitate cellular testing. All compounds underwent extensive biological evaluation in 14 human cancer cell lines. These studies included investigations of the inhibitory potential with regards to GPx1 and cell proliferation, examined the cytotoxicity in human cancer cell lines, as well as the induction of oxidative stress and DNA strand breaks. Furthermore, selected hallmarks of apoptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy were studied. Experimental approaches regarding these cellular mechanisms included observing morphological changes, detecting phosphatidyl serine exposure and caspase activity, and quantifying cleaved PARP1 and levels of LC3B II. In addition, the analysis of the cell cycle aimed to identify aberrations or arrests in cell division.
Five of the six tested pentathiepins proved to be potent inhibitors of the GPx1, while all six exerted high cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity, although to different extents. There was a clear connection observed between the potential to provoke oxidative stress and damage to DNA in the form of single- and double-strand breaks both extra- and intracellularly. Furthermore, various experiments supported apoptosis but not ferroptosis as the mechanism of cell death in four different cell lines. In particular, the externalization of PS, the detection of activated caspases, and the cleavage of PARP1 corroborated this conclusion. Additionally, indications for autophagy were found, but more investigations are required to verify the current data. The findings of this dissertation are mainly in line with the postulated mechanism of action proposed for pentathiepins and a previous publication from our group that described their biological activity. However, the influence of modulators such as oxygen and GSH on the biological effects was ambiguous and dependent on the compound. The expression profile of the cell lines concerning GPx1 and CAT did not influence the cellular response toward the treatment, whereas the cell doubling time correlated with the cytotoxicity.
As the various pentathiepins give rise to different biological responses, modulation of the biological effects depends on the distinct chemical structures fused to the sulfur ring. This may allow for future optimization of the anticancer activity of pentathiepins. An analysis of the structure-activity relationships revealed that the piperazine scaffold was associated with superior biological activity compared to the pyrrolo-pyrazine backbone. Furthermore, substituents with electron-withdrawing properties or those providing a free electron pair, such as fluorine or morpholine, were advantageous. These findings should help design and synthesize the next generation of pentathiepins, thereby expanding the library of compounds, allowing for the further deduction of structure-activity relationships and an improved understanding of their mechanism of action.
Target proteins in biotechnological applications are highly diverse. Therefore, versatile flexible expression systems for their functional overproduction are required. In order to find the right heterologous gene expression strategy, suitable host-vector systems, which combine different genetic circuits, are useful. In this study, we designed a novel Bacillus subtilis expression toolbox, which allows the overproduction and secretion of potentially toxic enzymes. This toolbox comprises a set of 60 expression vectors, which combine two promoter variants, four strong secretion signals, a translation-enhancing downstream box, and three plasmid backbones. This B. subtilis toolbox is based on a tailor-made, clean deletion mutant strain, which is protease and sporulation deficient and exhibits reduced autolysis and secondary metabolism. The appropriateness of this alternative expression platform was tested for the overproduction of two difficult-to-produce eukaryotic model proteins. These included the sulfhydryl oxidase Sox from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which forms reactive hydrogen peroxide and undesired cross-linking of functional proteins, and the human interleukin-1β, a pro-inflammatory cytokine. For the best performing Sox and interleukin, overproducing and secreting variants of these new B. subtilis toolbox fermentation strategies were developed and tested. This study demonstrates the suitability of the prokaryotic B. subtilis host-vector system for the extracellular production of two eukaryotic proteins with biotechnological relevance.
The present study covers the synthesis, purification and evaluation of a novel aminomethacrylate-based copolymer in terms of its suitability for improving the solubility and in vitro release of poorly water-soluble drug compounds. The new copolymer was synthesized by solvent polymerization with radical initiation and by use of a chain transfer agent. Based on its composition, it can be considered as a modified type of dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate-butyl methacrylate-methyl methacrylate “EUDRAGIT® E PO” (ModE). ModE was specifically developed to provide a copolymer with processing and application properties that exceed those of commercially available (co-)polymers in solubility enhancement technologies where possible. By varying the concentration of the chain transfer agent in the radical polymerization process, the molecular weight of ModE was varied in a range of 173–305 kDa. To evaluate the solubility-enhancing properties of ModE, a series of drug-loaded extrudates were prepared by hot melt extrusion using the novel—as well as several commercially available—(co-)polymers. These extrudates were then subjected to comparative tests for amorphousness, solubility-enhancing properties, storage stability, and drug release. Celecoxib, efavirenz, and fenofibrate were used as model drugs in all experiments. Of all the (co-)polymers included in the study, ModE with a molecular weight of 173 kDa showed the best performance in terms of desired properties and was shown to be particularly suitable for preparing amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) of the three model drugs, which in a first set of dissolution experiments showed better release behavior under pH conditions of the fasting stomach than higher molecular weight ModE types, as well as a variety of commercially available (co-)polymers. Therefore, the results demonstrate the successful synthesis of a new copolymer, which in future studies will be investigated in more detail for universal application in the field of solubility enhancement.
Abstract
Because isoenzymes of the experimentally and therapeutically extremely relevant sirtuin family show high similarity, addressing the unique selectivity pocket of sirtuin 2 is a promising strategy towards selective inhibitors. An unrelated approach towards selective inhibition of isoenzymes with varied tissue distribution is targeted drug delivery or spatiotemporal activation by photochemical activation. Azologization of two nicotinamide‐mimicking lead structures was undertaken to combine both approaches and yielded a set of 33 azobenzenes and azopyridines that have been evaluated for their photochemical behaviour and bioactivity. For some compounds, inhibitory activity reached the sub‐micromolar range in their thermodynamically favoured E form and could be decreased by photoisomerization to the metastable Z form. Besides, derivatization with long‐chain fatty acids yielded potent sirtuin 2 inhibitors, featuring another intriguing aspect of azo‐based photoswitches. In these compounds, switching to the Z isomer increased aqueous solubility and thereby enhanced biological activity by up to a factor of 21. The biological activity of two compounds was confirmed by hyperacetylation of sirtuin specific histone proteins in a cell‐based activity assay.
In recent years, the colon has become a hot topic in biopharmaceutical research as several in vitro models of the human colon have been presented. A major focus is on the characterization of the microbiota and its capabilities. The aim of the present study was to further develop the MimiCol, preserving its properties and accelerating data acquisition. Emphasis was placed on the simplicity of its design and easy scalability. To prove the viability of the concept, degradation of sulfasalazine was investigated, and the bacterial composition during the experiment was assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing. The transfer of the experimental conditions to the new model was successful. Commercially available components were implemented in the setup. The model MimiCol3 represented the colon ascendens satisfactorily in its properties regarding volume, pH value, and redox potential. 16S rRNA sequencing led to further insights into the bacterial composition in the vessels. Degradation of sulfasalazine was in good agreement with in vivo data. The new model of the colon ascendens MimiCol3 enabled us to collect more reliable data, as three experiments were conducted simultaneously under the same conditions.