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Orthohantaviruses are rodent-borne pathogens distributed all over the world, which do not cause visible disease in their reservoir host. Puumala orthohantavirus (PUUV) causes most human hantavirus disease cases in Europe and is transmitted by the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus). Hantaviruses have a tri-segmented genome consisting of the large (L) segment, coding for the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), the medium (M) segment, encoding the glycoproteins, and the small (S) segment. The S-segment contains two major overlapping open reading frames (ORF) coding for the nucleocapsid (N) protein and a non-structural (NSs) protein, a putative type I interferon (IFN-I) antagonist. To date, pathogenesis and reservoir host adaptation of hantaviruses are poorly understood due to missing adequate cell culture and animal models.
In contrast to previous studies, in this work, data from spring and summer 2019 indicated a high vole abundance, a high PUUV prevalence in voles and high human incidence for some endemic regions in Germany, but elsewhere values were low to moderate. Regional and local human health institutions need to be aware about the heterogeneous distribution of human PUUV infection risk.
For a better understanding of virus-host associations, two novel cell lines from bank voles and common voles each were generated and their susceptibility and replication capacities for a variety of zoonotic and non-zoonotic viruses were analyzed. The PUUV strain Vranica/Hällnäs showed efficient replication in a new bank vole kidney cell line, but not in four other cell lines of bank and common voles. Vice versa, Tula orthohantavirus (TULV) replicated in the kidney cell line of common voles, but was hampered in its replication in other cell lines. Several viruses, such as Cowpox virus, Vaccinia virus, Rift Valley fever virus, and Encephalomyocarditis virus 1 replicated in all four cell lines. West Nile virus, Usutu virus, Sindbis virus and Tick-borne encephalitis virus replicated only in a part of the cell lines. These results indicate a tissue or species specific tropism for many of the tested viruses and the potential value of vole cell lines to address such questions in detail.
Using one of these new cell lines, the first German PUUV strains were isolated from bank voles caught in the highly endemic region around Osnabrück. Complete genomes were determined by target-enrichment-mediated high-throughput sequencing from original lung tissue, after isolation and after additional passaging in VeroE6 cells and a bank vole-derived kidney cell line. Different single amino acid substitutions were observed in the RdRP of the two stable PUUV isolates. The PUUV strain isolated on VeroE6 cells showed a lower titer when propagated on bank vole cells compared to VeroE6 cells. Additionally, glycoprotein precursor (GPC)-derived virus-like particles of a German PUUV strain from the same region allowed the generation of monoclonal antibodies that reacted with the isolated PUUV strains.
To investigate the role of PUUV and other vole-borne hantavirus NSs proteins, the evolution of the NSs and N encoding sequences was investigated by a field study in bank voles and the NSs sequences were characterized in vitro for their inhibitory effect on the human interferon-β promoter. Analysis of blood and lung samples of 851 bank voles trapped during 2010-2014 in Baden-Wuerttemberg and North Rhine-Westphalia resulted in detection of 27.8% PUUV-specific antibody positive bank voles, whereas in 22.3% PUUV-specific RNA was detected. In the hantavirus outbreak years 2010 and 2012 PUUV prevalence in bank voles was higher compared to 2011, 2013 and 2014. Sequences of the S segment of all positive bank voles showed amino acid and nucleotide sequence types of the NSs-ORF with temporal and/or local variation, whereas the N-ORF was highly conserved. One sequence type persisted over the whole observation period in both regions. The NSs coding sequence was highly divergent among regional bank vole populations in the outbreak year 2012.
Transfection experiments resulted in the detection of different products of the NSs-ORF of PUUV, TULV, Prospect Hill and Khabarovsk orthohantaviruses, due to translation initiation at different methionine codons along the coding sequence. Using luciferase reporter assays, the NSs proteins of PUUV, TULV, Prospect Hill and Khabarovsk orthohantaviruses showed inhibition of IFN-I induction of up to 70%, whereas Sin Nombre and Andes orthohantavirus NSs proteins showed a reduced effect compared to the other NSs proteins. The first 20 amino acids of the N-terminal region of PUUV NSs were found to be crucial for IFN-I promoter inhibition.
In conclusion, the newly established cell lines, antibodies, reporter assays and PUUV isolates are highly valuable tools for future hantavirus research. The activity of PUUV NSs protein in human cells contributes to our understanding of virus-host interactions and highlights the importance of corresponding future reservoir host studies. Hantavirus surveillance studies showed the necessity for timely information of the potential human PUUV infection risk to public health institutions in endemic areas to initiate appropriate actions.
Hantaviren gehören zu den „Emerging Viruses“ mit einer weltweiten Verbreitung. Sie sind Erreger von Zooanthroponosen und werden von Nagetieren auf den Menschen übertragen. Humane Hantavirusinfektionen können je nach Erreger schwerwiegende Erkrankungen mit einer Letalitätsrate von bis zu 50 % hervorrufen. In den Jahren 2004/2005, 2007 und auch in diesem Jahr wurde in einer Reihe europäischer Staaten, einschließlich Deutschland, ein deutlicher Anstieg der Zahl der humanen Hantavirusinfektionen beobachtet. In Deutschland waren hauptsächlich Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Niedersachsen und Nordrhein-Westfalen betroffen. Zu den Risikogruppen zählen Personen, welche aufgrund ihres Berufes in engen Kontakt zu dem Reservoirwirt und dessen Ausscheidungs¬produkten kommen und somit auch gegenüber den Viren besonders exponiert sind. Die Hanta¬virus¬diagnostik basiert größtenteils auf serologischen Nachweismethoden wie Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) und Western Blot-Tests. Um humane Hantavirusinfektionen in Deutschland mit hoher Sensitivität und Spezifität zu diagnostizieren, wurden in dieser Arbeit serologische Testverfahren für die in Europa vorkommenden Hantaviren Dobrava-Belgrad-Virus (DOBV), Puumalavirus (PUUV) und Tulavirus (TULV) etabliert und validiert. Weiterhin wurden Protokolle zur Durchführung seroepidemiologischer Studien und für den Einsatz der neuen Testsysteme in der Diagnostik entwickelt. Gemäß dieser Protokolle wurden die Tests bei seroepidemiologischen Untersuchungen eingesetzt und lieferten Auf¬schluss über die Hantavirusprävalenz in verschiedenen Bevölkerungsgruppen in unter¬schiedlichen Gebieten Deutschlands. Auf der Basis Hefe exprimierter Nukleokapsidproteine (N-Proteine) von PUUV, Stamm Vranica-Hällnäs (PUUV-Vra) und Stamm Niederbayern (PUUV-Bava), DOBV, Stamm Slovenia (DOBV-Slo), und TULV, Stamm Moravia wurden ELISA und Western Blot-Tests zum Nachweis von humanen IgM- und IgG-Antikörpern entwickelt. Die Validierung mit deutschen und internationalen Seren ergab für die neuen Tests eine Sensitivität zwischen 94 % und 100 % und eine Spezifität von 96-100 %. Bei der Validierung der Tests mit Seren aus Finnland erreichte die Sensitivität 89-100 % und die Spezifität 95-100 %. Der Anteil an Seren, bei denen keine eindeutige Einteilung in „reaktiv“ oder „nicht reaktiv“ erfolgen konnte, lag bei maximal 2,7 %. Die indirekten DOBV-Slo- und PUUV-Vra-IgG/IgM-ELISA und Western Blot-Tests wurden durch INSTAND e.V. im März, September 2009 und April, September 2010 zertifiziert. Die TULV spezifischen Tests konnten aus Mangel an Referenztests und damit fehlender Referenzseren nicht validiert werden. Für die epidemiologischen Studien wurde das indirekte ELISA-Format eingesetzt, da das capture ELISA-Format in seiner diagnostischen Sensitivität schlechter als das indirekte Format abgeschnitten hatte. Die jeweiligen Western Blot-Tests und Immunfluoreszenztests dienten als Bestätigungstest. Die seroepidemiologische Studie bei 484 humanen Serumproben aus einem PUUV-Endemiegebiet in Niedersachsen zeigte eine Hanta-virusprävalenz von 7 %. Dieser Wert entspricht etwa dem Vierfachen der durchschnitt¬lichen Prävalenz des gesamten Bundesgebietes (1-2 %). Die Untersuchung von 178 Personen aus einem PUUV-Ausbruchsgebiet in Bayern ergab eine Hantavirusseroprävalenz von etwa 11 %. Interessanterweise waren 40 % der positiv getesteten Seren aus¬schließlich mit dem TULV-Antigen reaktiv. Es wurden auch die Seren von 208 in Bayern statio¬nierten Soldaten untersucht. Obwohl diese zu einer der Risikogruppen gehören, lag die Hantavirusprävalenz lediglich bei 2 %. Dagegen ergab eine Studie bei Wald¬arbeitern aus Branden¬burg dass 9 % der 563 ge¬testeten Personen Hantavirus spezifische Antikörper besaßen. Von diesen waren 43 % aus¬schließlich in den TULV-Tests reaktiv und 33 % reagierten exklusiv mit dem DOBV-Slo-Antigen. Eine ¬epidemiologische Studie bei Primaten aus dem deutschen Primatenzentrum in Göttingen zeigte, dass 12 % von den 251 getesteten Tieren mit mindestens einem der verwen¬deten Antigene reagierten. Dies stellt den ersten Nachweis von natürlichen Hantavirusinfektionen bei Primaten dar. Die Ergebnisse der epidemiologischen Studien zeigen die Bedeutung der Verwendung „homologer“ Antigene für eine hochsensitive serologische Diagnostik. Aus diesem Grund sollte zukünftig das PUUV-Bava Antigen für den serologischen Nachweis von Hantavirusinfektionen in Deutschland eingesetzt werden. Die epidemiologische Bedeutung des TULV muss weiter erforscht werden. Daher sollten bei zukünftigen epidemiologischen Studien die jeweiligen Serumproben auch auf TULV reaktive Antikörper untersucht werden. Mit den hier entwickelten serologischen Testverfahren wird es zukünftig möglich sein, Hantavirusinfek¬tionen mit hoher Sensitivität und Spezifität zu diagnostizieren.
Hantaviruses (family Bunyaviridae) are enveloped viruses with a segmented RNA genome of negative polarity. They can cause two different diseases in humans, the hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Europe and Asia and the hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome in America. The transmission to humans is mainly indirect by inhalation of aerosolized virus-contaminated rodent excreta. In contrast to the initial assumption that hantaviruses are mainly carried by rodents, during the last years many novel hantaviruses were detected in shrews, moles and recently in bats. These findings raise important questions about the evolutionary history of hantaviruses, their host association and adaptation, the role and frequency of spillover infections and host switch events. This study aims to prove the presence, geographical distribution and host association of the rodent-borne Tula virus (TULV) and the shrew-associated Seewis virus (SWSV) in Central Europe. For this purpose, novel laboratory techniques for molecular and serological hantavirus detection were developed. Initially, a broad-spectrum molecular assay to identify small mammal species from Central Europe was developed. This novel assay is based on PCR amplification using degenerated primers targeting the cytochrome b (cyt b) gene, nucleotide sequence analysis of the amplified cyt b gene portion and followed by pairwise sequence comparison to published sequences using the BLAST function of GenBank. Different small mammal species prevalent in Central Europe could be determined by this new approach, including not only representatives of various Rodentia and Soricomorpha, but also representatives of the orders Erinaceomorpha, Lagomorpha, Carnivora and Chiroptera. For characterization of insectivore-borne hantavirus Thottapalayam virus (TPMV), specific monoclonal antibodies were generated that detect native virus in infected mammalian cells. For the detection of TPMV-specific antibodies, Asian house shrew Suncus murinus immunoglobulin G (IgG)-specific antibodies were produced in laboratory mice and rabbit. Using this anti-shrew IgG and recombinant TPMV nucleocapsid (N) protein, an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed allowing the detection of TPMV N protein-specific antibodies in immunized and experimentally TPMV infected shrews. A Pan-Hantavirus SYBR-Green RT-qPCR was developed for the search to novel hantaviruses. By this novel RT-qPCR and other conventional RT-PCR approaches, TULV infections were identified for the first time in the Eurasian water vole Arvicola amphibius from different regions in Germany and Switzerland. The phylogenetic analyses of the different partial TULV small (S)-, medium (M)- and large (L)-genome segment sequences from A. amphibius, with those of Microtus arvalis- and M. agrestis-derived TULV lineages, revealed a geographical, but host-independent clustering and may suggest multiple TULV spillover or a potential host switch from M. arvalis or M. agrestis to A. amphibius. In a further comprehensive study, different shrew species (Sorex araneus, S. minutus, S. coronatus, and S. alpinus) were collected in Germany, Czech Republic, and Slovakia and screened by another L-segment-targeting Pan-Hantavirus RT-PCR approach. This screening revealed hantavirus L-segment sequences in a large number of S. araneus and a few S. minutus indicating a broad geographical distribution of this hantavirus. For detailed analyses, S-segment sequences were obtained, from S. araneus and S. minutus. The sequences demonstrated their similarity to SWSV sequences from Hungary, Finland, Austria and Germany. A detailed phylogenetic analysis showed low intra-cluster sequence variability, but high inter-cluster divergence suggesting a long-term SWSV evolution in local shrew populations. In conclusion, the investigations demonstrated a broad geographical distribution and multiple spillover infections of rodent-borne TULV and shrew-borne SWSV in Europe. The finding of putative spillover transmissions described here and in other studies underline the current problem of the hantavirus reservoir host definition. In contrast to the hypothesis of a long-standing hantavirus–rodent (small mammal) host coevolution, the investigations support a more dynamic evolutionary history of hantavirus diversification including spillover infections and host-switch events. In future in vitro and in vivo infection studies as well as field studies has to define factors determining the host specificity of these hantaviruses.