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Unstable environments and habitats changing due to climate change force individuals to either respond by genetic adaptation, phenotypic plasticity or by dispersal to suitable environments. Theodoxus fluviatilis (Linneaus, 1758) is a good study organisms when researching phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation as it naturally appears in freshwater (FW) as well as brackish water (BW) and thus inhabits a wide range of environmental salinities (0-18‰). It is a euryhaline snail that can be found in shallow waters with stony ground or on Fucus spp. and has formed regional subgroups. The brackish water and the freshwater subgroups are spatially separated and the species cannot be found in areas inbetween, e.g. estuaries.
The species shows great variability in shell patterning and shell size and there is still debate whether the subgroups are distinguishable by these traits or not. The mitochdrial RNA marker cytochrome c subunit I did not show differences between the subgroups indicating that they must be closely related, but salinity tolerance has been observed to be higher in BW snails. This might be caused by the different protein expression patterns and osmolyte accumulation (measured as ninhydrin-positive substances) observed in this species in previous studies. The exact mechanisms regulating protein expression and osmolyte accumulation, however, are not fully understood yet.
Data collected for this thesis shows differences in shell size and suggests a less strict grouping of FW and BW individuals as shell sizes of one FW site are more similar to BW individuals than the other FW ones. A better salinity tolerance towards high salinities and a higher physiological salinity limit of BW snails was confirmed and extended by demonstrating an expanded tolerance range through slow acclimation to challenging salinities in snails from both subgroups. This was achieved by a shift in the slope of their reaction norms that was much more pronounced in BW snails than FW ones. S3 individuals showed a shift similar to that of BW individuals. The data for the salinity tolerance indicates that the underlying mechanism for these tolerances are a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation. Despite an acclimation and shift in the slope of the reaction norms and therefore an increased tolerance towards high salinities (plasticity) FW individuals from two collection sites were not able to cope with salinities as high as BW individuals (local adaptation). The general ability to mobilise free amino acids (FAA) as organic osmolytes was not the reason for this tolerance difference. Individuals from BW and FW sites were capable of accumulating quantities of FAAs equally well. Proline, alanine and urea were the most important components of the accumulated cocktail of organic osmolytes. Even though the total amount of FAAs accumulated under hyperosmotic conditions was the same in both subgroups, there were differences in the metabolic pathways involved in osmolyte accumulation in the foot muscle. The data indicates that the hydrolysis of storage proteins and the synthesis of proline and alanine are the main processes to avoid detrimental body volume shrinkage in T. fluviatilis. While FW individuals seemed to rely on the degradation of proteins and synthesis of alanine, BW individuals depended on newly synthesising proline and alanine and accumulating urea as a side product of transamination. The accumulation of urea is a new finding in aquatic living snails and has not been reported as a mechanism to avoid cell volume shrinkage in these animals.
Differing protein expression patterns were observed under control conditions across all collection sites. 9 spots showed volume changes in BW snails opposite to those of FW snails from collection sites S1 and S2. For 6 of those spots, S3 individuals showed patterns similar to those of BW individuals and for the remaining 3 they showed patterns similar to those of FW animals. The patterns observed when exposing snails to hypo- or hyperosmotic stress were not conclusive in relation to pinpointing individual spots that show the same pattern in all collection sites, but revealed the heterogeneity of protein expression in snails from the different collection sites and in the process of osmoregulation. It also showed the general tendency of protein reduction when snails where under osmotic stress of either kind (hypo- or hyperosmotic), which supports the hypothesis of storage protein degradation.
The investigation of an ANP-receptor showed two variations of the encoding sequence expressed in T. fluviatilis. S3 individuals as well as BW individuals were found to express one type, while FW individuals, with the exception of one sample expressed the other type. This showed that the FW subgroup of T. fluviatilis seems to be more heterogeneous than the BW subgroup, but also raises the question of the dispersal history of this species. The collected data indicates that T. fluviatilis individuals are firstly capable of surviving the acidity of a duck's gizzard and secondly can tolerate acute salinity changes to 16‰ when introduced into a new environment. Hence, if snails from the FW were to be transported to waters with a salinity of up to 16‰ by man, bird, drifting plants or some other means of transport, they would most likely survive and possibly be able to thrive and spread.
Innerhalb der Crustacea evolvierte der Landgang mindestens zehn Mal unabhängig voneinander. Die Evolution des Landganges geht mit einer Vielzahl von morphologischen und physiologischen Anpassungen einher, die sich im Vergleich mit rezenten aquatischen Taxa und ihren nächsten terrestrischen Verwandten rekonstruieren lassen. Im Rahmen des Promotionsprojektes dienten vorangegangene neuroanatomische Untersuchungen am Landeinsiedler Coenobita clypeatus (Fabricius, 1787) und dem nah verwandten Palmendieb Birgus latro (Linnaeus, 1767) sowie auch das wenige Wissen über die Lebensweise des Palmendiebes als Ausgangspunkt, Hypothesen zur Sinnes- und Orientierungsleistung zu entwickeln und mit verschiedenen Verhaltensversuchen im Labor (C. clypeatus) bzw. im Freiland (B. latro) zu testen. Morphologische und verhaltensbiologische Befunde wurden mit Daten anderer Vertreter innerhalb der Anomala, Brachyura und Isopoda verglichen. Für die neuroanatomischen Untersuchungen wurden histologische und immunhistochemische Experimente und deren Analyse mithilfe der Lichtmikroskopie, der konfokalen Laser-Scanning-Mikroskopie durchgeführt und mittels dreidimensionaler Rekonstruktion und Morphometrie gestützt. Zur Evaluierung des Wanderungsverhaltens und der Orientierungsleistung von B. latro wurden verschiedene Freilandversuche auf der Weihnachtsinsel während vier Forschungsreisen im Zeitraum von 2008 bis 2012 vorgenommen. Für die verhaltensbiologische Untersuchung des Palmendiebes wurden Experimente mithilfe von Telemetrietransmittern für die Untersuchung des Wanderungsverhaltens und der Tagesrhythmik genutzt. Die neuroanatomischen Daten terrestrischer Vertreter dieser drei Taxa im Vergleich zu ihren nächsten marinen Verwandten, lassen den Schluss zu, dass die Strukturen des primären olfaktorischen Pfades im Zuge des Landgangs unterschiedlichen morphologischen Transformationen unterlagen. Hierbei fällt auf, dass die Strukturen des primären Riechsystems bei terrestrischen Vertretern innerhalb der Anomala stark vergrößert sind, wohingegen diese innerhalb der Brachyura deutlich geringere Dimensionen aufweisen. Innerhalb der Landasseln (Isopoda: Oniscidea) scheinen die primären Verarbeitungszentren der Olfaktion, die deutocerebralen chemosensorischen Loben im Gehirn, reduziert zu sein, da sie sich mit den hier verwendeten Methoden nicht identifizieren ließen. Die ersten Antennen der terrestrischen Isopoda sind im Vergleich zu den untersuchten marinen Asseln, aber auch im Vergleich zu den anderen beiden Taxa deutlich reduziert. Es wird in diesem Zusammenhang vermutet, dass andere sensorische wie verarbeitende Strukturen des Nervensystems es vermögen, das Fehlen bzw. die starke Reduktion des primären olfaktorischen Systems zu kompensieren. Es wurden Versuche durchgeführt, um die Reaktion des Palmendiebes auf verschiedene Duftstoffe im Freiland zu analysieren. Hierbei zeigten Acetoin, Trimethylamin und Dimethyltrisulfid die höchsten Attraktionswirkungen. Zusätzlich wurden Laborexperimente im Windkanal an Coenobita clypeatus etabliert, die das Ziel hatten, das Duftspektrum dieser dem Palmendieb nahe verwandten Tiere zu evaluieren und geruchsgesteuertes Suchverhalten zu analysieren. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Tiere sich bei der Stimulation durch natürliche Duftstoffe entlang der Duftfahne entgegen der Strömungsrichtung zielgerichtet zum Stimulus bewegten. Durch die Telemetrieversuche konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Palmendieb auch außerhalb der Reproduktionszeit zum Teil weite Distanzen zurücklegt, aber auch über eine gewisse Ortstreue verfügt und dieses Verhalten somit als semi-nomadisch charakterisiert werden kann. Während der Wanderungen wird vermutlich die Spurverfolgung als Navigationsstrategie genutzt, wobei auch Hinweise auf Pfadintegration als eine weitere Navigationsstrategie hindeuten. Dabei wird aufgrund der bevorzugten Nachtaktivität der Tiere davon ausgegangen, dass die Orientierung bei der Spurverfolgung chemisch gesteuert sein könnte. Diese These wird auch durch einfache Attraktionsversuche gestützt, bei denen einige Versuchstiere, trotz Blendung, den Köder erfolgreich aufsuchen konnten. Die lokomotorische Aktivität im Tagesgang, welche mithilfe von Beschleunigungssensoren (Akzellerometer) aufgezeichnet werden konnte, scheint besonders unter dem Einfluss der relativen Luftfeuchtigkeit zu stehen. Dabei konnte im Beobachtungszeitraum neben stabilen diurnalen, crepuscularen bis nocturnalen Aktivitätsmustern, auch kathemerales Verhalten dokumentiert werden. Neben individuellen Abweichungen im Tagesgang der lokomotorischen Aktivität, konnte für die meisten der Versuchstiere ein Aktivitätsmaximum während der Zeit des Sonnenuntergangs festgestellt werden, wohingegen während der Mittagszeit das überwiegende Aktivitätsminimum lag. Dies stützt wiederum die Hypothese, dass es einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Dynamik der Aktivität und der Dynamik der relativen Luftfeuchtigkeit geben könnte.
Increasing environmental changes primarily due to anthropogenic impacts, are affecting organisms all over the planet. In general, scientists distinguish between three different ways in which organisms can respond to environmental changes in their habitat: extinction, dispersal and adaptation. An example of organisms which are highly adaptable and can easily cope with new and changing environments are invasive species which are able to colonize new habitats with only few individuals. To successfully survive in their new environment, invasive species adapt fast to novel abiotic and biotic parameters, such as different temperature regimes. Phenotypic plasticity which enables organisms to quickly modify their phenotype to new environmental conditions, explains the success in adaptation of invasive species.
While underlying mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity are not fully understood, one possible “motor” of phenotypic plasticity is epigenetics. Especially DNA methylation could explain the fast changes of the organism’s phenotype due to plasticity when experiencing changing environments, as invasive species do. DNA methylation could even contribute to the adaptation of invasive species via phenotypic plasticity, especially with clonally reproducing species. Methods such as common garden experiments with clonally reproducing species are a useful tool to differentiate between phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation because the confusing effects of genetic variation are lowered in clonally reproducing species.
Our overall goal was to evaluate the genetic adaptive potential of New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) populations from Europe since they went through an extreme bottleneck after colonizing Europe only 180-360 generations ago. Seemingly, two different clonal lineages colonized Europe because two 16 s rRNA and cytochrome b haplotypes were found across different European countries, haplotypes t and z. The NZMS is a highly successful invasive species that is nowadays nearly globally distributed. The shells of the NZMS show a habitat-dependent high variability and are a fitness-relevant trait. The high variability in shell morphology is due to both genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity. To disentangle genetic from environmental effects on the shell morphology NZMS, we conducted a common garden experiment. We kept asexually reproducing females from eleven European populations in climate cabinets with three different temperatures to produce offspring. We compared shell size and shape across three generations using the geometric morphometrics approach. Furthermore, we estimated reaction norms, maternal effects, broad-sense heritability, the coefficient of genetic variation (CVA) and evolvability (IA) in shell size and shape across different temperature conditions. Additionally, we investigated the reproductive rate of the parental generation.
Results showed that the shell morphology of the parental generation differed across populations. In contrast, the shell morphology of offspring generations became more similar. The reaction norms of the F1 generation were rather variable across the three temperatures. However, we were able to observe a haplotype-dependent pattern across the reaction norms suggesting a restricted genetic differentiation among NZMS in Europe. We detected high heritability values in size indicating a high genetic influence. Heritability values for shape were lower than in size. Generally, heritability varied slightly depending on temperature. Size seemed to have a higher evolvability than shape. However, the values of all our calculations were very low which indicates that the European NZMS populations are genetically diminished. The reproductive rate of the parental generation was rather haplotype than temperature dependent. In summary, we were able to display that the NZMS is capable to plastically adapt its shell morphology to different temperatures showing significant differences between the two haplotypes. Nevertheless, the low evolvability values indicate that little genetic variation has formed since the arrival of the NZMS in Europe and therefore, European NZMS seem to have a reduced ability to react to selection.
These results implied that phenotypic plasticity is important for the adaptation to different environmental conditions in the NZMS and maybe other molluscan species. Since classical experimental approaches can only describe the resulting phenotypes, we also intended to shed more light on the mechanistic side of environmentally induced phenotypic modifications using DNA methylation analysis. Although molluscs represent one of the most diverse taxa within the metazoan and are found in many different habitats, our knowledge of the DNA methylation in molluscs is scarce. Therefore, we aimed at deepening and summarizing our understanding about DNA methylation in molluscs. Publicly available molluscan genomic and transcriptomic data of all eight mollusc classes was downloaded to search for DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs 1-3) responsible for DNA methylation. Additionally, we estimated the normalized CpG dinucleotide content (CpG o/e) indicating the presence/absence and the frequency of DNA methylation in the genome. The CpG o/e ratio refers to the level of DNA methylation in the genome. Based on the sensitivity of methylated cytosines to mutate into thymine residues, species having a high germline methylation in genomic regions over evolutionary time, also have a lower CpG content, which is called CpG depletion. In contrary, species with a limited germline methylation in genomic regions over evolutionary time, show a higher CpG content and lack CpG depletion. The presence or absence of CpG depletion can be calculated with the CpG o/e ratio. Ultimately, the goal of our analyses was to gain insight into the evolution of methylation in molluscs.
We detected DNMTs in all eight mollusc classes and in most of the species. It is therefore plausible that the last common ancestor of molluscs has already had the enzymatic machinery which is needed for DNA methylation. However, various species did not possess the complete DNMT toolkit indicating evolutionary modification in DNA methylation. In general, we found a wide distribution of the bimodal CpG o/e pattern in six mollusc classes, resulting from CpG depletion. The genes in these groups seem to be divided into genes with a high degree of methylation and genes with a lower degree of methylation. This implies that DNA methylation seems to be rather common in molluscs. Species of Solenogastres and Monoplacophora were not or only sparsely methylated. It seems that those mollusc groups have undergone a reduction in DNA methylation. We hope that our investigations will demonstrate the lacking knowledge in epigenetics of molluscs and encourage scientist to execute and continue genetic studies on molluscs.