Doctoral Thesis
Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (158) (remove)
Has Fulltext
- yes (158)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (158)
Keywords
- Biokatalyse (23)
- Proteindesign (16)
- Enzym (13)
- Biotechnologie (8)
- Biochemie (7)
- Ribozym (7)
- Biocatalysis (6)
- Enzyme (5)
- Hydrolasen (5)
- Protein Engineering (5)
Institute
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie (158) (remove)
In their idealized forms, enzymes can facilitate complex reactions with extreme specificity and selectivity. Additionally, in this imaginative form, they only require mild reaction conditions, resulting in low energy consumption, and they are biodegradable, efficient, reusable, and sustainable. Unfortunately, this idealized form often deviates significantly from reality, where enzymes are more likely to be associated with marginal stability and low reaction rates, leaving them less than desirable for many industrial applications. As such, if we could master the process of engineering the configuration of a protein towards a given task, the implications could be staggering.
This thesis aims to contribute to the process of protein engineering, mainly how computational tools can be used to make the protein engineering process more efficient and accessible.
Article I explores the current state of the art in machine learning-guided directed evolution and serves as a foundation for Article II, which is a concrete application of these techniques to an engineering campaign. Despite successfully improving overall activity and selectivity, we also observe limitations and constraints within the methodology. Article III then delves into these drawbacks and attempts to lay the foundation for a more generalizable and, more importantly, efficient engineering workflow, balancing the strengths and weaknesses of computational techniques with advances in gene synthesis. We then validated this novel pipeline in Article IV, where we show the potential of this methodology. Article V describes a more standard protein engineering campaign on squalene-hopene cyclases for potentially interesting products in the flavor and fragrance industry. Lastly, Article VI outlines a PyMol plugin for molecular docking.
This dissertation focuses on the characterization of novel enzymes and metabolic pathways that fulfill crucial functions during marine carbohydrate degradation by Bacteroidetes and thus contributes to an advanced understanding of the global carbon cycle. Depolymerization and utilization of marine polysaccharides by Bacteroidetes requires a tremendous repertoire of enzymes with a wide range of functions. For instance, during the breakdown of the marine red algal polysaccharide porphyran, an oxidative demethylation of the methoxy sugar 6-O-methyl-D-galactose (G6Me) by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases occurs. This reaction produces huge amounts of cytotoxic formaldehyde, marine bacteria capable of degrading porphyran must therefore possess suitable formaldehyde detoxification pathways. Consequently, Article I focus on the identification of possible formaldehyde detoxification pathways in marine
Flavobacteriia, which led to the discovery of the ribulose monophosphate pathway as specific pathway for the detoxification of formaldehyde in certain Bacteroidetes like Zobellia galactanivorans. Furthermore, it was demonstrated in Article II that alcohol dehydrogenases play an essential role in the microbial utilization of G6Me and therefore possess a function in porphyran degradation. Discovering novel enzymes, entire enzymatic cascades or biotechnologically important microorganisms that can metabolize these marine carbohydrates also contributes to the utilization of marine polysaccharides as feedstock for potential biotechnological applications. A prospective biorefinery process was proposed in Article III by the identification of Bacillus licheniformis as promising utilizer of marine carbohydrate-derived monosaccharides and the creation of a microbial cell factory capable of growing on ulvan, a marine carbohydrate obtainable from algal bloom-dominating green algae, enabling an industrial use of the renewable and abundant algal biomass in future.
This dissertation explores and tries to unravel the fundamental basis of G-quadruplex end-folding as well as G-quadruplex interactions with small molecules by thermodynamic and structural approaches. Selective targeting of G-quadruplexes with ligands remains elusive, either because the ligand has
considerable binding affinity for other DNA structures or because it fails to discriminate between different G-quadruplex topologies. Unique structural motifs on the G-quadruplex may enhance or inhibit ligand binding to the G-quadruplex. For such aspects, it is necessary to understand the effect of G-quadruplex motifs or elements on the end-folding in order to better tune certain G-quadruplex topologies as model systems. Importantly for targeting G-quadruplex with ligands, motifs called Quadruplex-duplex (QD) junctions and interfaces are shown to be a binding hotspot
for various G-quadruplex ligands containing an intercalator motif. Binding affinity and selectivity of the ligands are discussed with the support of the NMR structures.
Emerging zoonotic viruses are a constant threat to human and animal health. Therefore, knowledge about the host factors influencing viral pathogenicity is highly welcome as a basis for developing treatment or vaccine strategies. In order to identify host factors that potentially determine the
pathogenicity of three highly pathogenic (’high consequence’) zoonotic viruses, the interactomes of
selected viral proteins were analysed in parallel with the interactomes of the homologous proteins from closely related viruses which lack high pathogenicity. For this purpose, affinity purification mass spectrometry (AP-MS) was performed with the virus proteins as baits and lists of candidate proteins were generated that may determine the pathotype and warrant follow-up studies to characterise their function concerning the viral life cycles. In detail, the interactomes of virus pairs from the arenaviruses, filoviruses and henipaviruses were studied. The following protein homologues were selected: for filoviruses, the transcription factor VP30, the co-transcription factor VP35 and matrix protein VP40 of the non-pathogenic Reston virus
(RESTV, species Reston ebolavirus), the pathogenic Ebola virus (EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus),
and, in addition, the Lloviu virus (LLOV, species Lloviu cuevavirus); in case of the arenaviruses
the nucleoprotein (NP), matrix protein (Z) and glycoprotein (GP) of the pathogenic Junín virus (JUNV, species Argentine mammarenavirus) and the non-pathogenic Tacaribe virus (TCRV, species Tacaribe mammarenavirus); and for the henipaviruses, the fusion protein F of the apathogenic Cedar virus (CedV, species Cedar henipavirus) and the pathogenic Nipah virus (NiV, species Nipah henipavirus). The experimental approach was to express the tagged bait proteins in human cells by transfection with appropriate constructs, purify the interactomes by affinity enrichment and analyse their protein content by MS. Quantitation was performed by labelling with stable isotopes or by label-free quantification (LFQ). High-confidence interactions for the LFQ approach were identified using the Mass Spectrometry interaction STatistics (MiST) scoring tool. Qualitative and quantitative data were used to identify a limited number of candidates for follow-up research. Additionally,
the interactomes were analysed with bioinformatical tools like term enrichment analysis and network analysis to identify cellular pathways which are possibly impacted by the expression of viral proteins. A novel specific interactor of EBOV VP30 was identified, ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase7
(USP7, also known as HAUSP), and the interaction was partially characterised. The interaction was confirmed by reverse-pull-down experiments, and the Kd value (determined by Microscale Thermophoresis, MST) was found to be lower than for the interaction of USP7 with the RESTV VP30.
This work adds insight into virus protein interactomes, especially for the often neglected low pathogenic virus species. Furthermore, the pathogenicity of the viruses was refl ected to some degree
in the interactomes of their proteins. The generated interactome data for the different virus species
create a basis in the search for interactions that determine pathogenicity.
In this thesis, new catalysts as well as unprecedented approaches for the
valorization of sustainable carbon sources were investigated. The first part deals with the design of catalysts for photocatalytic CO2 reduction (Articles I&II). The promiscuous activity of phenolic acid decarboxylase from Bacillus subtilis (BsPAD) was found to catalyze CO2 reduction (Article I). This cofactor-free enzyme could facilitate the replacement of (noble) metal catalysts regularly employed in CO2 reduction. Based on these findings, additional enzyme catalysts were identified for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. The second part (Articles III-VII) focuses on the valorization of resources obtained from biomass, such as olive mill waste water or lignin, by the promising acyltransferases/hydrolase PestE from Pyrobaculum calidifontis VA1 (Articles IV-VII). The potential of PestE for the valorization of sustainable sources has been demonstrated by enzyme engineering and use in (chemo)enzymatic cascade reactions leading to value-added products.
Impact of proteostasis and the ubiquitin proteasome system on myeloid cell function in the CNS
(2023)
Cellular protein homeostasis (proteostasis) maintains a functional proteome and thus proper cell function. Proteostasis is facilitated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), an intracellular protein turnover machinery ensuring clearance of damaged, misfolded, old and/or unneeded regulatory proteins. This is particularly important in the central nervous system (CNS), where it is linked to neurodegeneration. Disruptions of the proteostasis systems cause the accumulation of misfolded proteins which are commonly seen in progressive neurodegenerative diseases also linked to neuroinflammation. Proper UPS function can protect cells from the accumulation of defective proteins, neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Furthermore, it has been found that loss of function mutations in the genes encoding UPS components are linked to systemic inflammation including neuroinflammation and/or neurodevelopmental disorders. Proteasome defects in patients suffering from these disorders cause decreased proteasome activity, accumulation of proteins, activation of proteotoxic stress responses and systemic inflammation. However, the molecular link between proteotoxic stress and the initiation of inflammatory signalling remained unclear. In Article 2, we summarized the importance of the UPS in immune cell proteostasis and function including activation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Although UPS function is notably important in innate immune signalling, the current understanding of the role of UPS in myeloid cell function in the CNS is limited. We also indicated the involvement of impaired UPS function in sterile systemic inflammation including neuroinflammation as well as tumour diseases and pathogen manipulation of immune cells.
To investigate the molecular link behind proteasome impairment and systemic inflammation in the brain, we focused on microglia cells as the only immune residents of the CNS. In Article 1, we used a pharmacological inhibitor called bortezomib which targets β5 and β5i/LMP7 subunit activities in standard proteasome (SP) and immunoproteasome (IP), respectively. We showed for the first time on the molecular level that inhibition of proteasome activity by bortezomib triggers the accumulation of ubiquitylated proteins, proteotoxic stress responses and innate immune signalling activation depending on the induced proteotoxic stress response called unfolded protein response (UPR) in murine microglia. In particular, activation of the inositol-requiring protein 1α arm of UPR upon bortezomib treatment leads to systemic inflammation as indicated by type I interferon (IFN) response.
IP enhance the proteolytic capacity of UPS by rapid clearance of proteins upon immune signalling activation. Microglia, like other immune cells, exhibit constitutive expression of IP as well as SP to maintain their cellular proteostasis. In Manuscript 3, we studied the particular impact of IP impairment on microglial cellular function. We showed accumulation of ubiquitin-modified proteins and activation of proteotoxic stress responses in IP-impaired mouse and human microglia models. Moreover, we identified possible IP substrates in microglia using β5i/LMP7 knockout mice as an IP deficiency model and, examined how IP deficiency affects microglia function. IP deficient microglia affected the ubiquitylation levels of proteins involved in multiple pathways such as immune responses, energy metabolism, cytoskeleton organisation, cell cycle and ribosome function. Based on the molecular analysis, we confirmed sterile activation of innate immune signalling mechanisms in IP impaired microglia. This is driven by the proteotoxic stress sensor protein kinase R (PKR). In addition, we were able to show that IP impairment altered levels of the microglial activation markers, which are also involved in motility, adhesion and phagocytosis of microglia.
In this thesis, we highlight that UPS function is necessary to maintain microglial proteostasis and, that impairment of proteasome activities triggers sterile inflammation in microglia via activation of proteotoxic stress responses. The described activation of innate immune signalling mechanisms in microglia upon proteasome impairment may be considered as new therapeutic targets for patients suffering from rare protesomapathies or other disorders linked to dysregulated immune signalling.
Marine algae are essential for fixation of carbon dioxide, which they transform into complex polysaccharides. These carbohydrates are degraded e.g., by marine Bacteroidetes and the understanding of their decomposition mechanism can expand our knowledge how marine biomasses can be accessed. This understanding then gains insights into the marine carbon
cycle. This thesis summarizes the current knowledge of marine enzymatic polysaccharide degradation in review Article I and extents a previously discovered ulvan degradation pathway in Article II with the description of a novel dehydratase involved in the ulvan degradation pathway. This enlarged ulvan-degradation pathway can be used to generate fermentable sugars from the algal derived polysaccharide ulvan. A potential biorefinery process is proposed in Article III, where B. licheniformis was engineered to degrade ulvan, thus establishing the initial steps for a microbial cell factory development. In addition to ulvan, also plenty of other complex carbohydrate sources are present in the ocean. The enzymatic elucidation principles previously developed were thus adapted towards a new marine carbohydrate. In Article IV a xylan utilization pathway was elucidated, using enzymes present in Flavimarina Hel_I_48 as model bacterium. The Flavimarina genome contains two separated genome clusters which potentially targets xylose containing polymers reflecting the diversity and adaptions towards different marine xylan-like substrates. Besides, marine Bacteroidetes are adapted towards decomposition of methylated polysaccharide, e.g., porphyran, via demethylation catalyzed by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. This reaction results in the formation of toxic formaldehyde and thus the marine Bacteroidetes require formaldehyde detoxification principles. The analysis of potential formaldehyde detoxification mechanisms revealed a marine RuMP pathway (Article V) and a novel auxiliary activity of an alcohol dehydrogenase of which the encoding gene is adjacent to the demethylase cluster (Article VI).
The relevance of cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs) in biomedicine has recently grown. The potential of CAPs has been discussed in multiple scientific works, highlighting its effectiveness in promoting wound healing, limiting cancer progression, and for sterilization of surfaces. Main bioactive molecules, such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), are proposed as key candidates in these processes. Indeed, the generation of cold plasma induces noble gas ionization which, reacting with atmospheric air molecules, generates species such as singlet oxygen, atomic oxygen radicals, nitric oxide radicals. Although molecular simulations have been conducted, the mechanism of action on biological molecules, as well as the possibility to tune plasmas to produce specific species cocktails (e.g., with different degree of oxidation power) has been not fully unleashed. In this dissertation, presented in form of 5 published scientific articles, focus has been placed on the interaction of plasmas with peptides and proteins, which are main biological effectors in cellular compartments. Precisely, through the development of liquid chromatography coupled mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods, the effects of plasmas on peptides and proteins in form of oxidative post-translational modifications (oxPTMs) has been investigated. The characterization of these oxPTMs has been performed by treating peptide or protein aqueous solutions and on porcine skin tissues. It has been found that, introducing small amounts of different gases (oxygen, nitrogen, or both) or even water molecules, can made CAPs tunable tools to produce oxygen-species dominating effects versus nitrogen-species dominating effects. In addition to this, it was found that the amino acid position in a peptide or protein influences the quality and quantity of the resulting oxPTMs. Besides this, other important parameters like driven gases, admixture gases or treatment duration were identified as relevant factors for the modification of amino acids in the peptide structure. By comparing the effects between peptide solutions and complex matrices such as porcine skin, water has been identified as a valid vehicle to transport and amplify the plasma chemistry. In an experimental study, the inactivation of a protein (PLA2) was observed after CAP treatment and together with simulation studies, the specific dioxidation of tryptophane W128 was detected as a potential explanation for this inactivation, indicating the strong impact of plasma on biological targets. In summary, oxidative modifications found in peptide solutions were observed also in complex protein structures and sample matrices. In conclusion, this work provides a starting point for future studies of oxidative modifications in complex models and may thus be helpful for further investigations in the fields of plasma medicine and redox chemistry.
This work investigated the enzymatic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (ArticlesI and II) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Article III). Physical or chemical degradation of plastic polymers is often performed under extreme conditions like high temperatures or pressure. In comparison to that, recycling of plastics with enzymes can be carried out at ambient temperatures and neutral pH. Enzymes themselves are non- toxic, environmentally friendly, and have been used successfully in a variety of industrial processes.
Enzymatic degradation of polyesters is well studied. Their heteroatomic backbone, which is connecting monomers via ester bonds offers a target for an enzymatic attack. Especially PET, one of the most common polyesters, has been in the focus of research. The first enzyme capable of degrading the polymer was found in 2005. Since then, researchers discovered several enzymes with similar functions and subjected them to enzyme engineering. Improving the enzyme's substrate affinity, activity, and stability aims at making PET recycling more efficient. Article I provides an overview of limitations that enzymatic PET recycling is still facing and the research carried out to overcome them. More precisely, enzyme−substrate interactions, thermostability, catalytic efficiency, and inhibition caused by oligomeric degradation intermediates are summarized and discussed in detail.
Article II further addresses one of the above-mentioned limitations, namely product inhibition of PET hydrolyzing enzymes. We elucidated the crystal structure of TfCa, a carboxylesterase from Thermobifida fusca (T. fusca), and applied semi-rational enzyme engineering. The article discusses the structure-function relationship of TfCa based on the apo-structure as well as ligand-soaked structures. Furthermore, it compares the structures of TfCa and MHETase, another PET hydrolase helper enzyme. Lastly, we determined the substrate profile of the carboxylesterase based on terephthalate-based oligo-esters of various lengths and one ortho-phthalate ester. In a dual enzyme system, TfCa degraded intermediate products derived from the PET hydrolysis of a variant of PETase hydrolase from Ideonella sakaiensis (I. sakaiensis). The dual enzyme system utilized PET more efficiently in comparison to solely PETase due to relieved product inhibition. Since TfCa successfully degraded oligomeric intermediates, the reaction not only released terephthalic acid as the sole product but also increased the overall product yield.
While PET contains an ester bond that can be attacked and hydrolyzed by esterases or lipases, PVA consists of a homoatomic C-C-backbone with repeating 1,3-diol units. The polymer is water soluble with remarkable physical properties such as thermostability and viscosity. PVA is often described as biodegradable, but microbial degradation is slow and frequently involves cost-intensive cofactors. In this study, we present an improved PVA polymer with derivatized side chains and an enzyme cascade that can degrade not only modified but also unmodified PVA in a one-pot reaction. The enzyme cascade consists of a lipase, an alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), and a Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO). In comparison to the scarcely published research on PVA degradation with free enzyme, this cascade is not only independent from the frequently required cofactor pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) but, in principle, contains an in vitro cofactor recycling mechanism.
This thesis deals with the characterisation and engineering of new thermophilic PET hydrolases as potential candidates for an eco-friendly biocatalytic recycling approach for the upcycling or downcycling of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) on industrial scale. Furthermore, high-throughput screening methods are described that detect the products of PET hydrolysis. The high demand of PET in the packaging and textile industries with a global production of 82 million metric tons per year has significantly contributed to the global solid waste stream and environmental plastic pollution after its end-of-life. Although PET hydrolases have been identified in various microorganisms, only a handful of benchmark enzymes have been engineered for industrial applications. Therefore, the identification of new PET hydrolases from metagenomes or via protein engineering approaches, especially thermophilic PET hydrolases with optimal operating temperatures (i.e., increased thermostability and activity) near the glass transition temperature of the polymer PET, is a crucial step towards a bio-based circular plastic economy. Article I demonstrates that metagenome-derived thermophilic PET hydrolases can be significantly improved using different engineering approaches to achieve a similar activity level as the well-established leaf-branch-compost cutinase (LCC) F243I/D238C/S283C/Y127G variant (LCC ICCG). In Article II, thermostable variants of a mesophilic enzyme (PETase from Ideonella sakaiensis) were identified from a mutant library and characterised against PET substrates in various forms. Articles III and IV describe the application of high-throughput methods for the identification of novel PET hydrolases by directly assaying terephthalic acid (TPA), one of the monomeric building blocks of PET. Furthermore, Article IV describes the possibility of a one-pot conversion of the TPA-based aldehydes produced to their diamines as example for an open-loop upcycling method.
Ziel der Arbeit war es, Mono-Dithiolen-Vanadiumkomplexe zu synthetisieren, die als Katalysatoren in Oxidationsreaktion von prochiralen Sulfiden zu chiralen Sulfoxiden getestet werden sollten.
Es konnten verschiedene Ansätze entwickelt werden, die vielversprechend waren, um durch weitere Forschung Mono-Dithiolen-Vanadiumkomplexen erhalten zu können.
Insbesondere konnte eine universell anwendbare Syntheseroute für die Verwendung von aliphatischen Dithiolenen in der Komplexsynthese erfolgreich gezeigt werden. Außerdem wurden neue Kristallstrukturen verschiedener Dithiolen-Vanadiumkomplexe erhalten.
Die Dissertation beschreibt die Synthese verschiedener Nukleosidanaloga mit den notwendigen Modifizierungen und Funktionalitäten für einen Einsatz in der Phosphoramidit-basierten chemischen Oligonukleotidsynthese an fester Phase. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wurde ein nicht-kanonisches Desoxyadenosinderivat ausgehend von Allopurinol hergestellt. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Azid-modifizierte Nukleoside synthetisiert und Untersuchungen zur Herstellung eines Borono-modifizierten Adenosinderivats durchgeführt. Des Weiteren wurde ein Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Stabilität der Azidogruppe unter Standardbedingungen der Phosphoramidit-basierten chemischen Oligonukleotidsynthese demonstriert.
In dieser Doktorarbeit konnte in zwei verschiedenen experimentellen Modellen der chronischen Pankreatitis in C57BL/6 Mäusen gezeigt werden, dass die chronische Pankreatitis mit einem Gewichtsverlust und einer Verminderung der muskuloskelettalen Kraft assoziiert sind. Untersuchungen im Kleintier-MRT belegten eine signifikante Verminderung des Durchmessers des Quadrizepsmuskels in beiden Modellen. Auf Proteinebene fanden sich im Skelettmuskel von Mäusen mit chronischer Pankreatitis Expressionssteigerungen von growth differentiation factor 8 (GDF8) und Muscle RING-finger protein-1 (MuRF1). Auf mRNA Ebene konnten wir zeigen, dass Activin A und das transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) in beiden Modellen erhöht waren, wohingegen Follistatin und teilweise auch Inhibin A vermindert waren. Die Anzahl apoptotischer Zellen stieg im Quadrizepsmuskel in beiden Modellen signifikant an, was darauf schließen lässt, dass die Apoptose beim Muskelabbau eine Rolle spielt. Des Weiteren fanden sich in Mäusen mit chronischer Pankreatitis und Sarkopenie Veränderungen des Serummetaboloms und des Stuhlmikrobioms, die jedoch in Abhängigkeit des verwendeten Modells stark variierten. Modellübergreifend war eine Vermehrung von Akkermansia spp. in der chronischen Pankreatitis nachweisbar.
Pancreatitis is an inflammatory disorder of the pancreas with a mortality rate of 5% and severe negative effects on the quality of life. Of all non-malignant gastrointestinal diseases, it is the most common reason for hospitalization. Pancreatitis is a disease of multiple etiologies with different underlying pathomechanisms. Due to the diversity of mechanisms by which homeostasis within the exocrine pancreas can be disrupted, finding appropriate therapeutic approaches is challenging. Current treatment options are inadequate and are mostly limited to supportive treatment like fluid administration, bowel rest, antibiotics and pain control. Although significant advancements have been achieved in recent decades, the mortality rate for pancreatitis has not decreased. Furthermore, progress is slow due to limited patient sample availability and lack of an appropriate cell model. Taking samples from a human pancreas is typically avoided, because damaging the pancreatic tissue can itself induce pancreatitis. Additionally, while it is possible to keep individual acini in culture, it is not possible to grow pancreatic acinar cells. Thus, less appropriate cell models, often derived from pancreatic cancer samples, have to be used. The most common animal model for pancreatitis is mice, with caerulein administration being the most common method of inducing pancreatitis. However, the use of animal models has significant drawbacks, as they are time-consuming, costly, and pose ethical questions. Furthermore, exposing the pancreas to appropriate stimuli in animal models is difficult. For example, alcohol is the leading cause of pancreatitis in humans, but is typically avoided by animals. Thus, alcohol feeding methods had to be developed to overcome the natural aversion of rodents to alcohol. Results obtained from animal models are also often not transferable into clinical trials and outcomes in humans remain largely unpredictable. Due to the lack of experimental models, our understanding of this highly complex disease is still limited and significant progress is required for the development of effective therapy options.
In this dissertation recombinantly expressed trypsin isoforms and variants of the serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 (SPINK1) inhibitor are used to investigate mechanisms, by which tryptic activity is regulated in pancreatic acinar cells. With premature tryptic activity in the exocrine pancreas being the common focal point of most etiologies connected to pancreatitis, trypsin represents by far the most promising target for treating pancreatitis. Understanding the mechanisms by which the pancreas protects itself and rationalizing mutations that can undermine these protective mechanisms, are important steps towards developing effective therapies.
Enzymes are well-known for being remarkably selective catalysts. They are often able to catalyse reactions for certain molecules while leaving other similar molecules completely unchanged. Nevertheless, many enzymes are capable of catalysing other reactions and/or transforming other substrates than their physiologically relevant activities. This phenomenon is referred to as enzyme promiscuity and it is thought to play an important role in the emergence of novel functions by providing a starting point for divergent evolution towards different enzymatic activities. It is important for enzymes to be selective to avoid harmful side-products and increase reaction efficiency, but often catalysts are not optimised beyond what is required for their function. Life profits from the cross-reactivity and enzyme promiscuity through accidental discovery of new helpful molecules and pathways, while using regulation to quickly adapt to changing circumstances.
Enzymes are grouped together with other similar proteins into structural families and superfamilies. Members of a structural family share significant structural elements and often have similar catalytic mechanisms. However, they often catalyse very different chemical reactions and accept a variety of different substrates. Promiscuous activities are common within superfamilies, where the primary function of one family member is often found as promiscuous activity in other family members. Together with the structural similarities, this prevalent cross-reactivity suggests a common evolutionary origin. One of the largest structural superfamilies is the α/β-hydrolase-fold family. Despite sharing a highly conserved core structure, this superfamily is catalytically diverse and spans several distinct enzyme classes including hydrolases, acyltransferases, oxidoreductases, lyases, and isomerases. Epoxide hydrolases and dehalogenases of the α/β-hydrolase-fold family even share the same Asp/Glu-His-Asp catalytic triad and form similar covalent alkyl-enzyme reaction intermediates, yet they are known for attacking either epoxides or C-X bonds with perfect chemoselectivity. Although promiscuity is often observed within the α/β-hydrolase fold family and despite their mechanistic similarities, no α/β-hydrolases were known that exhibit both epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase activity simultaneously.
The versatility of the catalytic triads used by α/β-hydrolases makes these enzymes attractive targets for the conversion of catalytic activity through protein engineering. Several attempts were made to introduce dehalogenase activity in an epoxide hydrolase, and after several rounds of designing and screening different variants of the epoxide hydrolase PaeCIF from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, minor dehalogenase activity was detected for some of the variants. However, despite promising first results it proved extremely difficult to reliably reproduce the results, primarily due to expression problems and low sensitivity of the halide detection assays that were available at the time. Since the conversion proved to be more difficult than expected (unpublished data), it was decided to investigate other potential protein scaffolds.
Considering the prevalence of catalytic promiscuity among members of the α/β-hydrolase-fold superfamily, and the close relationship and catalytic similarities between epoxide hydrolases and dehalogenases, it seemed odd that no enzyme is known to have both epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase activity. We argued that it is highly probable that a promiscuous epoxide hydrolase-dehalogenase enzyme exists, but it simply has not been found yet due to the absence of sensitive high-throughput halide assays and not screening the right set of enzymes. Although several established assays were available for the determination of dehalogenase activity, these assays suffer major drawbacks. For example, one of the most popular assays, the Iwasaki assay, is not very sensitive and uses extremely toxic chemicals, while pH assays like the phenol red assay are inherently unreliable and insensitive due to the low buffer concentrations employed107,114. Thus, a new assay for the screening of dehalogenase activity through the selective detection of halides was developed115. The halide oxidation assay provides a safer, more reliable, and most importantly, much more sensitive method to detect dehalogenase activity.
Using molecular phylogenetics, we studied the evolutionary relationship between epoxide hydrolases and dehalogenases to identify interesting extant epoxide hydrolases. Molecular phylogenetics uses a multiple sequence alignment of the amino acid or nucleotide sequences of extant enzymes to construct a phylogenetic tree. At first, we tried using a large dataset with almost 3,500 putative epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase sequences, but we quickly realised the resulting phylogenetic tree was impractical. Most of the sequences in this large dataset were not characterised experimentally but annotated automatically based on their sequence similarity to a rather limited number of characterised sequences. Although automated annotations can be used as predictions for catalytic activity, they are often wrong. As we were particularly interested in the interface of both epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase activities, we needed more certainty and a change in direction was necessary.
Instead of trying to filter the α/β-hydrolase fold database, experimentally characterised sequences were collected through literature research. This smaller dataset consisting of characterised sequences resulted in a phylogenetic tree containing 45 epoxide hydrolases, 30 haloalkane dehalogenases and 7 haloacetate dehalogenases from a variety of different organisms. Ancestral sequence reconstruction was attempted for several interesting nodes in this phylogenetic tree. By combining the multiple sequence alignment, the evolutionary relationships from the phylogenetic tree, and evolutionary models, a hypothetical sequence of the theoretical ancestor can be determined. Unfortunately, it was difficult to get good soluble protein expression with the ancestral sequences and despite our best efforts it was not possible to obtain reliable and reproducible screening results. Instead of trying to improve protein expression and purification protocols for the ancestral sequences, we decided to focus on screening extant sequences with the newly developed halide oxidation assay to find a promiscuous epoxide hydrolase-dehalogenase.
In addition to reconstructing ancestral sequences, eight extant epoxide hydrolases could be selected for screening towards dehalogenase activity and as promising potential engineering scaffolds from this phylogenetic tree. The eight selected epoxide hydrolases were screened for dehalogenase activity with several haloalkane substrates and the epoxide hydrolase CorEH from Corynebacterium sp. C12 was found to exhibit promiscuous dehalogenase activity. Interestingly, the measured concentrations of bromide for the initial hit with CorEH were only 150-250 nM, well below the lowest detection limit of 20 µM achievable in microtiter plate format with the Iwasaki assay. This means that the dehalogenase activity of CorEH would probably not have been detected were it not for the development of the sensitive halide oxidation assay.
CorEH is an epoxide hydrolase that can also catalyse the dehalogenation of haloalkanes, particularly bromoalkanes such as 1-bromobutane and 1-bromohexane. The dehalogenase activity of wild-type CorEH with 1-bromobutane (0.25 nmol·min-1·mg-1) is about 4,000-fold lower than the average activity of several natural dehalogenases with two halide-stabilising residues (1 μmol·min-1·mg-1) and approximately 400-fold lower compared to the dehalogenases with a single halide-stabilising residue. The crystal structure of CorEH was determined to 2.2 Å. Our structure-function studies suggest that the dehalogenase activity of CorEH probably stems from the presence of at least one halide-stabilising residue. Unfortunately, this could not be confirmed experimentally via mutagenesis as the W100A variant lost both the dehalogenase and epoxide hydrolase activity in equal measure, making it difficult to demonstrate that W100 is involved in halide stabilisation. The loss of both activities for variant W100A can possibly be explained by the secondary function of the tryptophan; removal of W100 might lead to the incorrect positioning of the catalytic nucleophile for the nucleophilic attack involved in both epoxide hydrolysis and dehalogenation. Nevertheless, computational modelling of Michaelis-Menten complexes, utilising the crystal structure of CorEH, supports the hypothesis that the tryptophan W100 is involved in halide stabilisation in CorEH. Based on docking studies, the epoxide ring-opening tyrosine is also close enough to form hydrogen bonds to stabilise the substrate. However, it is also possible that like several characterised haloalkane dehalogenases, CorEH only uses a single residue to stabilise the halide. Removal of the tryptophan at the primary halide-stabilising position resulted in the loss of both activities, likely due to the loss of its secondary function to properly position the catalytic nucleophile. Substitution of the uncommon tryptophan in the HGxP-motif with phenylalanine does not completely remove the dehalogenase activity. Nevertheless, it causes a significant drop in both haloalkane dehalogenase and epoxide hydrolase activities, indicating that this residue is important for catalysis or the structural integrity of CorEH.
Enzyme promiscuity plays an important role in enzyme evolution and the diversification of enzymes. Several researchers have attempted to interconvert epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase activity, or to find an enzyme with both activities, without success. It would be hard to maintain the view that promiscuity is a fundamental property crucial to enzyme evolution if we could not observe promiscuity between two enzyme classes with such similar reaction mechanisms. Our findings show that dual epoxide hydrolase and dehalogenase activity can occur in one natural protein scaffold. We believe that we succeeded because we used a phylogenetic analysis of characterised sequences to select the right subset of epoxide hydrolases to investigate and due to the much more sensitive halide assays not available to those before us. The versatility of the catalytic triad in α/β-hydrolases combined with the variety of possible supporting residues found in both epoxide hydrolases and dehalogenases shows that catalytic mechanisms can be flexible. This flexibility allows space for diversification of catalytic residues without loss of function, giving rise to novel (promiscuous) functions and new cross-reactivities.
The discovery of antibiotics around one century ago was a milestone for medicine. However, despite the warning of Alexander Fleming in 1945, antibiotics were used poorly, resulting in many antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Patients infected with resistant pathogens need to get treated with additional antibiotics or, as a last resort, trust completely on their immune system. This causes 700,000 deaths per year. Most clinically used antibiotics have been derived from soil microorganisms, while other niches stayed unexplored. Exploring new niches inhabiting antibiotic-producing microorganisms may result in novel antibiotics. Furthermore, expanding the search from frequently investigated soluble metabolites to volatiles may open up numerous compounds as potential future antibiotics. This thesis is about the search for antimicrobial volatiles produced (among others) by microorganisms from social spider ecosystems, a niche that was little explored until now.
Volatiles are characterized by their high vapor pressure at ambient temperatures, allowing them to distribute fast in both the gas and water phase. They can spread quickly even in complex ecosystems using the air and potentially fulfill functions like communication and antimicrobial defense. Especially, volatiles with antimicrobial activities caught the attention of many scientists because of their potential role in pathogen defense, as we have reviewed (Article I). Volatiles are usually produced in the primary metabolism and belong to diverse chemical classes, like hydrocarbons, aromates, alcohols, aldehydes, acids, esters, amides, and thiols. Their antimicrobial spectrum ranges from antifungal, to antibacterial, anti-oomycete, and even broad-spectrum activity. Volatiles are ubiquitously produced. Especially Bacillus and Streptomyces species are often reported to produce antimicrobial volatiles. Knowledge about antimicrobial volatiles – for example, details about their modes of action – is lacking yet, but these compounds may help to overcome the antimicrobial resistance crisis in the future. Volatiles could be used in medicine and agriculture, either alone or in combination with traditional antibiotics, opening new strategies against antimicrobial resistance.
A promising source of (volatile) antimicrobials is the ecosystem of social arthropods. Due to their lifestyle in dense colonies, they likely spread pathogens between individuals, making antimicrobial defense crucial. Since the presence of antimicrobial volatiles was reported in social insect ecosystems, we investigated the unexplored volatilome of the Namibian social spider Stegodyphus dumicola (Articles II and III). In the first study, we analyzed the in situ volatilomes of the spiders’ nest, web, and bodies using GC/Q-TOF and revealed that more than 40 % of the tentatively identified volatiles were already known for their antimicrobial activities (Article II). We proved the antimicrobial activity of five pure compounds found in the samples, among others against the suggested spider pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis. These results indicate the potential role of antimicrobial volatiles for pathogen defense and could ultimately help explain the spiders’ ecological success.
Volatiles from the spider volatilome can originate from various sources, including microorganisms, surrounding plants, the spiders themselves, the spiders’ prey, so we analyzed the volatilomes of microbial nest members in a second study. The microbial nest members we selected for this were the bacteria Massilia sp. IC2-278, Massilia sp. IC2-477, Sphingomonas sp. IC-11, and Streptomyces sp. IC-207, and the fungus Aureobasidium sp. CE_32 (Article III). Several volatilomes showed antibacterial and/or antifungal activities against two suggested spider pathogens. The subsequent volatilome analyses using GC/Q-TOF revealed the presence of many volatiles that have already been described as antimicrobials. Five pure volatiles were tested against two suggested spider pathogens, revealing all volatiles as antibacterial, antifungal, or both. These results support the potential role of antimicrobial volatiles in social spider pathogen defense and indicate microbial nest members as the origin of (novel) antimicrobial volatiles.
Together, the articles that constitute this thesis highlight the antimicrobial power of volatiles (Article I), indicates the volatilome of the ecosystem of S. dumicola as a potential pathogen defense (Article II), and finally reveal the spider nest microbiome as a source for antimicrobial volatiles (Article III). This knowledge not only adds to the understanding of social spider ecosystems (and likely other social arthropod ecosystems) but also has the potential to open a novel source for antimicrobial compounds that may help to counter the antimicrobial resistance crisis.
With the aim to discover and create suitable biocatalysts for the synthesis of chiral amines in a faster and more efficient way, this thesis includes protein engineering studies (Article I), explores transaminase substrate specificities (Articles II and IV), and an ultrahigh-throughput growth system-based for the directed evolution of amine-forming enzymes (Article III).
The protein engineering studies described in Article I deal with the creation of a (R)-amine transaminase activity in the α-amino acid transaminase scaffold to expand our knowledge of the evolutionary relationship between amine transaminase and α-amino acid transaminase. Article II describes the broadening of the limited substrate scope of transaminases to enable the conversion of bulky substrates. In Article III, a growth selection system is described for an ultra-high throughput screening strategy to accelerate the identification of desired mutants, which can be widely applied to the directed evolution of amine-forming enzymes.
This thesis summarizes the published works by Robert Hieronymus which were done in the group of bioorganic chemistry of Prof. Dr. Sabine Müller. The different works had the goals to design, develop, and test catalytically active RNA systemes that might have been plausible for an early RNA world scenario.
The different RNA systems presented in this thesis were developed via rational design, for which each time the hairpin ribozyme (HPR) was utilized as a design template. The HPR belongs to the group of self-cleaving ribozymes and comes with features that make it a very attractive candidate for the contemplated tasks: It’s small, it’s variable in sequence, and it can cleave or ligate bound RNA substrates depending on the substrate binding strength. Substrates with weak binding to the ribozyme tend to be cleaved while substrates with stronger binding become ligated. This feature was utilized to develop RNA systems with catalytic cascades.
The first of the catalytic RNA systems that is presented in this thesis establishes a HPR mediated recombination system. In a one-pot reaction two RNA strands without function but with pro-functional regions are getting bound and cleaved by the HPR in separate ways. The generated fragments with the pro-functional parts are designed to bind stronger to the HPR than their non-functional counterparts and are ligated in a subsequential reaction by the HPR. The recombination product is a hammerhead ribozyme (HHR), and thus, a self-cleaving ribozyme on its own, whose synthesis can be monitored by the addition and cleavage of a separate RNA substrate.
The second RNA system is also a recombination system mediated by a HPR, but this time it starts with the functional HHR product from the previous system as an educt. Via a similar mechanism as before the recombination is done with another functional RNA: an RNA aptamer (sensoric RNA). The recombination of HHR and aptamer leads to the generation of a hammerhead aptazyme, an HHR whose cleavage functions are now regulated via ligand binding on the aptamer part. This novel system was successfully demonstrated with RNA sequences of theophylline and FMN aptamers as different educts for the recombination reaction.
The HPR in the final work presented here was designed as a self-splicing ribozyme. Here the HPR sequence is located within the intron and is flanked by two exon sequences on both its ends. The developed HPR is able to fold itself in two alternative conformations, both with either one of the intron-exon interfaces located within the formed catalytic site. Subsequently to the first cleavage and dissoziation of one of the exons, the HPR folds into the alternative conformation, which triggers the cleavage reaction of the remaining exon. Once both exons are cleaved off, the fragments are ligated by the HPR, which concludes the catalytic cascade with the healing of the RNA source strand.
The various works presented in this thesis demonstrate nicely the flexibility of the HPR and how well suited it is to be utilized as a template in rational design of RNA systems. Furthermore, it is plausible to assume that the HPR, due to its many features, must have had a place in the early RNA world.
The hairpin ribozyme is a small Mg2+-dependent catalytic RNA molecule able to catalyze the trans-cleavage of an RNA substrate via a reversible trans-esterification mechanism. In this study, the cleavage activities of several fragmented hairpin ribozyme systems were examined. Due to the complex catalytic structure of the hairpin ribozyme, a new boronic acid ester was used as a covalent linkage to hold the folding of the functional system. It has been demonstrated the possibility of replacing the phosphodiester linkage, at specific positions, with a boronic acid ester to restore or improve the catalytic activity of fragmented hairpin ribozyme.
Monodithiolenkomplexe des Wolframs und des Molybdäns des Typs [M(CO)2(dt)(PP)] (M= Mo, W; dt= Dithiolen; PP= Bisphosphan) waren bisher nur wenig zugänglich und entsprechend kaum untersucht. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden diverse Variationen an Dithiolen- und Phosphan-Liganden eingeführt und die erhaltenen Komplexe umfassend charakterisiert. Ein besonderer Fokus wurde hierfür auf die redoxbasierte Reaktivität dieser spannenden Komplexklasse gelegt, sodass eine Aktivierung von molekularem Stickstoff im Rahmen einer Kleinmolekülaktivierung ermöglicht werden sollte. Während der Untersuchungen konnte ein erstes Beispiel für die Generierung eines Dithiolen-Sulfonium-Liganden basierend auf einer Reaktivität gegenüber dem Kleinmolekül Dichlormethan erhalten werden.
Immunogenität von Hautkrebszellen und dem Modellprotein Ovalbumin nach einer Kaltplasma-Behandlung
(2021)
Eine Behandlung von Tumoren mit physikalischem Kaltplasma zeigt eine erhöhte Toxizität und ein reduziertes Tumorwachstum. Zeitgleich werden während einer Behandlung mit Plasma eine Vielzahl an reaktiven Sauerstoff- und Stickstoffspezies (RONS) generiert, welche Immunzellen stimulieren können. Viele neue Therapieansätze bestreben nicht nur eine Tumortoxizität, sondern auch eine Förderung der körpereigenen, da diese häufig durch Mechanismen der Tumorzellen unterdrückt wird. Zu solchen Therapien zählen checkpoint inhibitoren, Vakzinierungen oder ein adaptiver Zelltransfer mit transgenen oder vor-stimulierten Zellen. Die dadurch geförderte Antitumor-Immunantwort basiert grundlegend auf einem mehrphasigen Prozess. Dieser beginnt mit einer Antigen-unspezifischen frühen Phase, in der das innate Immunsystem aktiviert wird und zu einer Vermehrung und Differenzierung von Antigen-spezifischen CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen führt. Da während einer Entzündungsreaktion viele RONS gebildet werden, um Fremdkörper zu eliminieren und Immunzellen zu rekrutieren, ist eine Therapie mit RONS naheliegend. Durch die Anwendung von Kaltplasma können die gebildeten RONS zum Entzündungsgeschehen beitragen und Zellen des innaten und adaptiven Immunsystems stimulieren. Eine veränderte Immunogenität von Tumorzellen sowie eine daraus resultierende direkte Aktivierung von Immunzellen im Kontext einer Antitumor-Immunantwort wurden nach einer Behandlung mit Jet-Plasmen bislang nicht untersucht.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Kaltplasma-Behandlung von Hautkrebszellen und eines Modellantigens unter Berücksichtigung einer Antitumor-Immunantwort durch natürliche Killerzellen des innaten Immunsystems sowie adaptive Immunzellen in vitro und in vivo untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Behandlung mit Kaltplasma zu einer erhöhten Tumortoxizität führt und das Repertoire der Oberflächenmoleküle auf Tumorzellen verändert. In vivo wurde eine vermehrte Infiltration von Immunzellen in das Tumormikromilieu beobachtet, welche mit einer erhöhten Aktivierung von Lymphozyten und Konzentrationen immunstimulatorischer Zytokine einherging. Durch die zeitgleich reduzierten Tumorgrößen, ist eine durch Immunzellen vermittelte Tumortoxizität als Erklärung naheliegend. In zwei Vakzinierungsstudien konnte die Immunogenität von Plasma-behandelter Tumorzellen und einem Tumorassoziierten Modellantigen bestätigt werden.
The soluble blood protein beta2-glycoprotein I (beta2GPI; 326 aa, MW: 48 kDa, 5 domains) is one of the most abundant proteins in human serum and exhibits two main conformational states: the circular or closed conformation, where the first domain (DI) is bound to the last domain (DV) of the protein, and the linear or open conformation. The defined physiological function of beta2GPI is still unknown, though several roles in pro- and anticoagulation as well as oxidative stress protection were discovered. The open form is considered to play a crucial role in the systemic autoimmune disease antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), which is an acquired thrombophilia characterized by recurring thrombotic events and pregnancy morbidity. Beta2GPI constitutes the main antigen for APS autoantibodies which are supposed to bind a cryptic epitope within DI after a conformational change from closed to open form. However, the pathophysiological mechanism of APS is poorly understood. Therefore, investigating the structural dynamics of this protein in relation to its antigenicity is of high interest.
Post-translational modifications (PTM) of a target protein often show an impact on the formation of neoantigens, for instance in the autoimmune-mediated diseases type 1 diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, or multiple sclerosis. Such modified antigens may lead to immune tolerance breakdown as they are unknown to the immune system, which therefore could mistakes self for non-self proteins. In this thesis, two frequently occurring PTM were introduced to beta2GPI and their impact on the protein conformation was studied by biophysical tools (i.e. atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy). In order to examine immunopathophysiological relevance of these PTM, additional insights were gained from ELISA which was used to examine binding of anti-DI autoantibodies purified from the blood of APS patients to the modified beta2GPI species.
A characteristic feature of beta2GPI is the high content of lysine residues. Previously, opening of beta2GPI was found to be triggered by a drastic shift in pH and salt concentration (pH 11.5 and 1.15 M NaCl), which results in reversible uncharging of the lysine residues. The aim of this study was to investigate the beta2GPI conformation after lysine acetylation as a model system, to elucidate the role of lysine residues on the conformational dynamics of this protein, and to examine anti-DI autoantibody binding to both the untreated as well as acetylated species.
A strategy to permanently open up the closed form under physiological conditions by chemical acetylation of lysine residues utilizing the sensitive acetylation agent acetic acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (NHS-Ac) was established. Complete and specific lysine acetylation was verified by quantification of primary amines exerting a fluoraldehyde o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) reagent assay, as well as by native PAGE and western blot analysis with an anti-acetylated lysine antibody. Beta2GPI acetylation revealed a partial opening of beta2GPI molecules. Compared to untreated, i.e. native beta2GPI which exhibited 93% of the molecules in closed and 7% in open form, complete lysine residue acetylation generated 39% of beta2GPI in closed and 61% in open conformation as shown by AFM high-resolution imaging. pH 11.5-treated beta2GPI was used as a reference in the applied methods and revealed 38% of the protein in closed and 62% in open conformation. Thus, a significant shift in beta2GPI conformation occurred upon lysine residue acetylation as well as basic pH-treatment. The data indicate that lysine residue acetylation destabilizes the closed form, leading to a facilitated opening of the structure. The closed conformation might be predominantly stabilized by electrostatic interactions of lysine residues, which potentially control the conformational dynamics of this glycoprotein. ELISA confirmed that anti-DI autoantibodies do not bind to untreated (closed) beta2GPI. Although acetylated beta2GPI was shown to have a substantial portion of open proteins, no binding of anti-DI autoantibodies to the acetylated species was found either. Hence, acetylated lysine residues may disrupt the immunorelevant epitope in DI which prevents antibody binding. This finding reveals a new hint for epitope organization. However, further detailed epitope mapping has to be performed.
Beta2GPI carries two structural disulfide bonds per domain, whereas an additional disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326 is located at the C-terminus of DV near the putative contact interface of DI and DV in the closed conformation. It was previously shown that beta2GPI is a substrate of thiol oxidoreductases, including human thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) generating different redox states of disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326, which might serve as a scavenger in oxidative stress protection in the blood stream. In APS patients, anti-DI antibody titers as well as an enhanced risk for thrombotic events are associated with an increase in the oxidized state of the protein. Hitherto, no structural study has been performed in order to prove a correlation of the redox state and the conformation of beta2GPI. Therefore, investigations of beta2GPI conformation in different redox states of disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326 were carried out. In addition, binding of anti-DI autoantibodies to the untreated (native) as well as reduced protein should be explored.
At first, cysteine residues of untreated, i.e. native beta2GPI were confirmed to be completely in oxidized state using Ellman’s reagent assay and the absence of binding of a thiol-specific agent. Statistical analyses of AFM images revealed that untreated beta2GPI was mainly in closed conformation (80% in closed and 20% in open conformation) in the respective system. In this study, an optimized protocol for enzymatic reduction of disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326 was established. The agent TCEP was used to reduce human Trx-1, which in turn enzymatically reduced beta2GPI. To block reoxidation of free thiols and to facilitate product analysis, cysteine residues of reduced beta2GPI were subsequently labeled with the sensitive and thiol-specific reagent 3-(N-maleimidopropionyl) biocytin (MPB), which carries a biotin function. During protocol establishment, complete and specific reduction of disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326 was confirmed utilizing SDS-PAGE, streptavidin western blot, mass spectrometry (MS) analyses, and a biotin quantification assay. Protocol improvements constituted a homogenous system with remarkable decrease of unspecifically reduced beta2GPI. Upon beta2GPI reduction, AFM imaging revealed no significant shift in protein conformation (75% in closed and 25% in open conformation). These results were qualitatively confirmed by TEM imaging. Therefore, reduction of beta2GPI disulfide bond Cys288/Cys326 did not result in a major conformational change of the protein. Upon in vitro reduction, the closed form is still the main conformation and a direct correlation of beta2GPI redox state and conformation must be refused. Furthermore, beta2GPI reduction led to a strong and statistically highly significant increase in anti-DI autoantibody binding compared to untreated beta2GPI. Thus, the reduced form might be the antigenic form of the protein. In contrast to previous knowledge, these findings suggest that anti-DI autoantibodies may also bind to the closed conformation under certain conditions. Hypothetically, reduction of beta2GPI could induce a minor structural change in DV that might facilitate the binding of APS autoantibodies.
Overall, this study reveals that PTM of beta2GPI may lead to a critical level of destabilization of the closed conformation (as in the case of acetylated beta2GPI) or significantly increase the binding of APS autoantibodies (as in the case of reduced beta2GPI), both of which could have a large impact on APS disease. However, further investigations are necessary to put these new findings in the context of APS immunopathophysiology.
Haloalkanes are serious environmental pollutants commonly employed as pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. Although haloalkane production is performed mostly in the chemical industry, it also occurs naturally, mostly enzymatically (halide methyltransferases and haloperoxidases). Elimination of toxic haloalkanes is very important and using haloalkane dehalogenases is a promising and environmentally friendly way to achieve this.[53] Therefore, assays are needed for detecting dehalogenase activity either to find new enzymes or to generate laboratory-evolved variants. In this thesis, a new assay for dehalogenase activity was developed based on halide detection. In this assay halides, as dehalogenase products, are oxidized under mild conditions using the vanadium-dependent chloroperoxidase from Curvularia inaequalis, forming hypohalous acids that are detected using aminophenyl fluorescein.[53] This new halide oxidation assay is much more sensitive than previously known assays, with detection limits of 20 nM for bromide and 1 μM for chloride and iodide. Validation of the assay was done by comparison to a well-established GC-MS method in terms of determining the specific activities of two dehalogenases towards five common substrates (Figure 5).
The HOX assay was modified for iodide-specific detection by using two other dyes, o-phenylenediamine (OPD) and 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TBM), instead of APF. Also, selective bromide detection in the presence of the common contaminant chloride was achieved by using a bromoperoxidase. Since the assay relies on halide detection, it is possible to use it for other halide-producing enzymes (Section 8.1). For example, the TMB-modified version was used for screening of halide methyltransferase libraries towards various alkyl iodides.[166] Furthermore, the HOX assay was used to identify promiscuous dehalogenase activity of the epoxide hydrolase CorEH from Corynebacterium sp. C12.[105]
Moreover, studies showed that the HOX assay could be used with in-vitro synthesized protein. Selected dehalogenases, DhlA, DhaA, and DmmA, were synthesized in vitro and used in the assay; the product formation was also validated using GC-MS. In conclusion, the HOX assay can be used with purified protein, whole cells, or in vitro synthesized proteins.
The HOX assay application in microfluidic droplets was investigated since an ultra-high-throughput assay for haloalkane dehalogenases is needed. This investigation showed no leakage of reaction components and products in the short term (~24 h), based on tests done on water-in-oil droplets generated by microfluidic chips. Even though 20 μM droplets were not working, 70 μM droplets were successful for assay implementation. Since the Damborsky group in Brno (CZ) and the deMello group in Zürich (CH), have large dehalogenase libraries and more experience in microfluidics, respectively, we collaborated with these groups to finalize implementation of the assay in an ultrahigh-throughput format. Since the studies are ongoing, final results could not yet be shown in this thesis. However, it can be noted that the issue with 20 μm droplets has been sorted out since our collaborators in Brno noticed that the low fluorescence of the droplets is actually caused by excessive accumulation of fluorescein, which is self-quenching, resulting in low fluorescence once the concentration exceeds 1 μM. By lowering the APF concentration they could optimize the maximum amount of fluorescein formed, and a mutant library has now been successfully screened by our collaborators at the ETH. The last topic of the thesis was an investigation of converting an epoxide hydrolase into a haloalkane dehalogenase. These studies focused on increasing the minor dehalogenase activity of two previously identified epoxide hydrolase (Cif) variants. These Cif variants hardly led to soluble proteins, the PROSS algorithm was used to increase soluble expression. New variants of Cif were generated using a 3DM analysis and the PROSS[164] design. The activities of these variants were determined with the newly developed HOX assay in a whole-cell format. Cif23 E153N-H269D and the PROSS D7 E153N-H269D variant, were found being active against 1,2-dibromoethane. Since the determination of enzyme concentration was hard to measure due to the expression/purification problem, specific activities could not be determined. To solve this problem, a HiBiT-tag was added to the selected variants for determining soluble expression. However, the planned studies could not be completed because of a lack of time and will form the basis for a future study.
This thesis focuses on the establishment of biocatalytic cascade reactions for the production and detection of industrially relevant flavor and fragrance compounds for food and cosmetic products. To meet the consumer’s demand for those products to be natural, environmentally friendly biocatalytic manufacturing processes that operate GMO-free must be established. Thus, this thesis presents such pathways for the production of an industrially relevant long-chain hydroxy fatty acid and the important flavor and aroma compound raspberry ketone. Furthermore, a biosensor for aldehyde detection was implemented to facilitate screening for suitable biocatalysts that produce industrially relevant aldehydes that are widely applied in the flavor and fragrance industry.
The development of the two main types of diabetes mellitus, type 1 and type 2 (T1D, T2D), is closely associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells. In T1D, β-cell death
is triggered by proinflammatory cytokines, which mainly lead to the formation of ROS
in mitochondria and RNS in the cytosol. Pancreatic β-cells are extraordinarily sensitive
to oxidative stress due to their low glutathione peroxidase and catalase expression.
Thus, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) cannot be detoxified, neither sufficiently, nor rapidly.
H2O2 itself is a rather weakly reactive ROS but can react in the Fenton reaction to form
highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (●OH), that can damage cells in a variety of ways and
induce cell death. The cell and its organelles are bounded by biological membranes
that differ in their permeability to H2O2. Aquaporins (AQPs) are water-transporting
transmembrane proteins, and some isoforms have been shown to facilitate a bidirectional transport of H2O2 across cellular membranes in addition to water. The role of
AQP8 was investigated in an insulin-producing cell model by stably overexpressing
AQP8 (AQP8↑) and by a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated AQP8 knockout. However, AQP8
proved to be an essential protein for the viability of the insulin-producing RINm5F cells, and so we established a tet-on-regulated AQP8 knockdown (AQP8 KD). Our results highlight that AQP8 is involved in H2O2 transport across the plasma and mitochondrial membranes, and that AQP8 expression gets upregulated by proinflammatory cytokines (in vitro) and in an acutely diabetic rat model (in vivo). Furthermore, it was shown that the increased proinflammatory cytokine toxicity is due to enhanced mitochondrial oxidative stress, because H2O2 cannot be efficiently transported in AQP8 KD cells and ●OH
are increasingly generated. Caspase activity then raises, and apoptosis is increasingly
induced coupled with a proportion of ferroptosis-mediated cell death because of a concomitant decrease in nitric oxide (NO●) concentration. In conclusion, AQP8 is localized in the plasma and mitochondrial membrane of insulin-producing RINm5F cells, where it is involved in H2O2 transport. In T1D, AQP8 plays an important role in the transport of H2O2 from the mitochondrial matrix to the cytosol so that the concentration is lowered in the mitochondria. This wider distribution of H2O2 may ease the inactivation of H2O2.
Die akute Pankreatitis ist durch eine vorzeitige Aktivierung von Verdauungsenzymen noch innerhalb der Azinuszellen gekennzeichnet. Die lysosomale Hydrolase Cathepsin B (CTSB) spielt hierbei eine entscheidende Rolle, indem sie Trypsinogen zu Trypsin aktiviert. Für die Trypsinogenaktivierung durch CTSB ist eine Co-Lokalisierung beider Enzyme innerhalb desselben subzellulären Kompartiments erforderlich. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Regulation der CTSB-Aktivität durch den Cysteinprotease-Inhibitor Cystatin C im Verlauf der akuten und chronischen Pankreatitis näher zu untersuchen.
Subzelluläre Fraktionierungsexperimente zeigten eine deutliche Lokalisation von Cystatin C und aktiven Cathepsin B im sekretorischen Kompartiment muriner Azinuszellen. Immunofluoreszenzfärbungen zeigten ebenfalls, dass Cystatin C zusammen mit der pankreatischen Amylase im sekretorischen Kompartiment von Azinuszellen lokalisiert ist. Auch in humanen Probenmaterial konnten wir zeigen, dass Cystatin C im sekretorischen Kompartiment lokalisiert ist und auch sekretiert wird. Experimente mit rekombinanten Proteinen zeigten eine deutliche pH-abhängige inhibitorische Wirkung von Cystatin C auf Cathepsin B. Unter sauren pH Bedingungen dimerisiert Cystatin C und ist somit nicht mehr in der Lage die Aktivität von CTSB zu inhibieren. Weiterhin konnten wir zeigen, dass aktives Trypsin Cystatin C prozessiert. Bei dieser Spaltung entsteht ein Cystatin C-Fragment, welches nicht mehr in der Lage ist, CTSB zu inhibieren, sondern vielmehr die auto-inhibitorische Kapazität von Cathepsin B unterbindet und somit die Aktivität stabilisiert. Neben Cystatin C wird in Azinuszellen auch Cystatin B exprimiert, ein weiterer Inhibitor der Cystein-Proteasen. Im Gegensatz zu Cystatin C ist Cystatin B exklusiv im cytosolischen Kompartiment der Azinuszelle lokalisiert. Dies ist wahrscheinlich ein Schutzmechanismus, welcher die Zelle vor einer cytosolischen Cathepsin-Aktivität schützen soll. Die genetische Deletion von Cystatin C im Mausmodell der akuten Pankreatitis führte zu einer erhöhten Aktivität sekretorischer Proteasen in Azinuszellen, sowie im Gesamthomogenat und in subzellulären Fraktionen. Dementsprechend zeigte sich auch ein deutlich erhöhter Schweregrad in der akuten und chronischen Pankreatitis.
Unsere Experimente lassen vermuten, dass die Aktivität von Cathepsin B unter physiologischen Bedingungen durch Cystatin C unterbunden wird, um so eine verfrühte Aktivierung des Trypsinogens zu verhindern. Im Verlauf der Pankreatitis wird dieser protektive Mechanismus jedoch überwunden. Die Aktivität von Cathepsin B steigt deutlich in der schweren Zymogengranula-Fraktion an, trotz der Präsenz von Cystatin C.
Zusammenfassend lassen unsere Ergebnisse vermuten, dass prozessiertes (aktives) Cathepsin B selbst unter physiologischen Bedingungen im sekretorischen Kompartiment von Azinuszellen bereits vorhanden ist. Seine Aktivität wird dort durch Cystatin C inhibiert, wodurch eine vorzeitige, durch CTSB induzierte Trypsinogenaktivierung verhindert wird. Die Ansäuerung der sekretorischen Vesikel, wie bei der Pankreatitis, verringert die CTSB-Hemmung durch Cystatin C, während es gleichzeitig zu einer Cystatin C-Degradation durch Trypsin kommt. Dies ermöglicht eine verlängerte und pH-unempfindliche Protease-Aktivierung über CTSB in der Anfangsphase der Pankreatitis. Cystatin C spielt somit eine wesentliche Rolle für die Regulation der CTSB-Aktivität im sekretorischen Kompartiment von Azinuszellen und stellt damit einen entscheidenden pathophysiologisch relevanten Mechanismus für die akute und chronische Pankreatitis dar.
Scholz et al. developed an electrochemical assay to study the impact of reactive species on self-assembled monolayer (SAM). The aim of this thesis is to use this electrochemical assay with gold supported lipid bilayers instead of SAM to study the effect of reactive species on model membranes that mimic oxidative damage to the biological cell membrane. Here, three questions will be addressed: I) how specific substances such as lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants protect a membrane from oxidative damage, II) what are the lipid oxidation products after oxidative damage of the model membrane, and III) whether oxidative damage of the model membranes causes pore formation on lipid bilayer. Electrochemistry was first used to measure the oxidative damage over the entire lipid membrane. Then, mass spectroscopy was used to characterize how lipids as the molecular building blocks of the membrane, change when exposed to reactive species. Imaging the membrane with AFM showed how oxidative damage in the model membrane alters lipid self-assembly within the supported lipid bilayer in nanometer scale. In addition, cold physical plasma (CPP) was used to produce the biological relevant reactive species. This fundamental research demonstrates the great potential of supported lipid bilayers as model membranes and cold physical plasma as a source for the production of biologically relevant reactive species to study the effect of oxidative stress on cell membranes.
The target specificity of thioredoxin family proteins is determined by electrostatic compatibility
(2021)
The thioredoxin (Trx) family of proteins comprises many key enzymes in redox signaling, that catalyzes specific reversible redox reactions, e.g. dithiol-disulfide exchange reactions, (de-)glutathionylation, trans-nitrosylation, or peroxide reduction. With the analysis of a large number of proteins, as well as a certain redox couple in [article 1] and [article 4], we demonstrated that electrostatic complementarity is the major distinguishing feature that controls the specific interactions of Trxs with their target proteins. The primary aim of this work was to determine the importance of this specific interaction and the prediction, modulation, and engineering of functional redox interactions of Trx family proteins. To understand the role of electrostatic complementarity for the mammalian Trx1-TrxR complex, we generated more than 20 hTrx1 mutants and systematically engineered the electrostatic potential within and outside the contact area with TrxR [article 1]. The effects of these specific alterations distributed all over the protein surface were analyzed by enzyme kinetics, differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF), circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and MD simulations. Trx family proteins have a broad and very distinct substrate specificity, which is a prerequisite for redox switching. In [article 4], we comprehensively compared the classification of various redoxins from all kingdoms of life based on their similarity in amino acid sequence, tertiary structure, and electrostatic properties. These similarities were then correlated to the existence of common interaction partners. Our analyses confirmed that the primary and tertiary structure similarities do not correlate to the target specificity of the proteins as thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases. However, we demonstrated that the electrostatic properties of the protein from both Trx or Grx subfamilies is the major determinant for their target specificity.
Although structurally very similar, CxxC/S-type or class I Grxs act as oxidoreductases and CGFS-type or class II Grxs act as FeS cluster transferases. In [article 3], we re-investigated the structural differences between the two main classes of Grxs to solve the mystery of the missing FeS transferase activity of the CxxC/S-type and the lack of oxidoreductase activity of the CGFS-type Grxs. The presence of a distinct loop structure adjacent to the active site is the major determinant of the Grx function. We confirmed that the function of Grxs can be switched from oxidoreductase to FeS cluster transferase by construction of a CxxC/S-type Grx with a CGFS-type Grx loop and vice versa. Results of several in vitro and in vivo assays together with the detailed structural analyses indicate that not a radically different substrate specificity accounts for the lack of activity, but rather slightly different modes of GSH binding, which is an essential nucleophile required in redox and iron homeostasis.
Various processes within the cell depend on GSH, including redox reactions, reversible posttranslational modifications, and iron metabolim. GSH is not only important in the export of FeS precursors from mitochondria, but it is also an essential cofactor for cluster binding in iron sulfur Grxs. In [article 2], we discussed the role of GSH and iron sulfur Grxs in iron metabolism, the physiological role of CGFS-type Grx interactions with BolA- like proteins, and the cluster transfer between Grxs and recipient proteins. The first well characterized physiological function of a Grx-BolA hetero complex is presented with the Grx3/4-Fra2-mediated regulation of iron homeostasis in yeast.
In synopsis, the results presented and discussed in these articles and the manuscript support the concept of electrostatic properties as the main determinant in substrate specificity towards functional predictions in Trx family proteins. The mathematical model presented here showed significantly accuracy and precision in function prediction. We are aware that our findings are focused on Trx family proteins as a particular family of proteins, but by using a machine learning strategy this mathematical model is being trained with numerous different protein models for better efficacy and accuracy, that may lead to new insights also in the specific interactions of other protein families. The new concept for the substrate specificity determinant doesn’t eliminate previously described aspects for molecular recognition, instead it reveals a deeper understanding of the protein-protein interaction. The 3D structural elements of a protein play a significant role in the specificity and function. We have been able to activate an inactive protein by replacing defined structural elements. Elimination of the loop structure from CGFS-type Grx5 transformed it from an FeS transferase into an oxidoreductase and the activity was further increased by modification of the active site. We believe that the present findings may be useful to investigate proteins in great detail regarding their function based on structure and electrostatic properties. Understanding the nature of the specific interactions may enable us to specifically modify the signal transduction pathways.
Die Pankreatitis ist eine relativ häufige gastrointestinale Erkrankung deren Pathomechanismus bisher nicht vollständig geklärt wurde. Besonders die Rolle des Immunsystems scheint einen wichtigen Einfluss auf den Verlauf dieser Erkrankung zu haben. Gut charakterisiert ist bereits die initiale lokale Immunantwort. Zerstörte Azinuszellen setzten DAMPs (engl. damage-associated molecular pattern) frei, die wiederum eine Infiltration von Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems in das Pankreasgewebe induzieren und aktivieren. Zu diesen Zellen gehören Makrophagen und Neutrophile. T-Zellen, welche zum adaptiven Immunsystem gehören, wandern nicht in das Pankreas ein, sie werden jedoch systemisch aktiviert. Vor allem Th2-Zellen (T-Helferzellen Typ2) und Tregs (regulatorische T-Zellen) werden im Verlauf einer Pankreatitis induziert. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Tregs während einer Pankreatitis nicht nur aktiviert werden, sondern ebenfalls eine höhere suppressive Kapazität besitzen.
Die genaue Rolle dieser antiinflammatorischen Immunantwort und im speziellen der Einfluss von Tregs sollte in dieser Arbeit mit Hilfe von DEREG Mäusen (engl. depletion of regulatory T cells) genauer charakterisiert werden. Durch gezielte Depletion von Tregs mittels DT (Diphtheria Toxin) kann die Auswirkung der Abwesenheit von Tregs im Pankreatitis-Mausmodell untersucht werden. Im akuten Modell kommt es zu einem systemischen Anstieg der T-Effektor-Immunantwort. Die Depletion von Tregs hat zudem eine Auswirkung auf den Schweregrad der Erkrankung. Unter Abwesenheit von Tregs sinkt im akuten Pankreatitis-Modell der pankreatische Schaden. Als eine mögliche Ursache konnte die Dysbalance der Treg/Th17 regulierten intestinalen Immunantwort identifiziert werden, welche zu einer Zerstörung der Darmbarriere führt und eine Translokation kommensaler Mikroorganismen ins nekrotische Pankreasgewebe initiiert.
Im chronischen Pankreatitis-Modell konnte gezeigt werden, dass die T-Zelldifferenzierung einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die Makrophagenpolarisation hat und dadurch den Verlauf der Chronifizierung der Pankreatitis mitbestimmt. Eine Depletion von Tregs in der chronischen Pankreatitis führt zu einer ungebremsten Th2-Antwort. Über die freigesetzten Zytokine, wie z.B. IL4, wird die Makrophagenpolarisation in Richtung der antiinflammatorischen Makrophagen verschoben. Diese Makrophagen induzieren über IL10 und TGFβ die Aktivierung ruhender PSCs (pankreatische Sternzelle) und regulieren somit Regenerationsprozesse. Kommt es zu einer Dysregulation dieser Makrophagenpolarisation, kann dieser Regenerationsprozess unkontrolliert erfolgen. Als Folge dessen kommt es nicht nur zu einer gesteigerten Aktivierung von PSCs, sondern auch zu einer exzessiven Kollagenproduktion, welche zu einer pathologische Fibrose führt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen deutlich, dass Tregs einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Gewebeumstrukturierung des Pankreas haben. Eine Depletion von Tregs im chronischen Pankreatitis-Modell induziert über die Aktivierung antiinflammatorischer Makrophagen eine Expression von PSCs. Diese unkontrollierte Induktion führt zu einer gesteigerten Kollagenproduktion und Bildung von fibrotischem Pankreasgewebe unter gleichzeitigem Verlust von Azinuszellen. Diese exzessive Gewebeumstrukturierung resultiert in einem Funktionsverlust des exokrinen Gewebes. Mäuse deren Tregs depletiert wurden verloren im chronischen Pankreatitis-Modell bereits nach 14 Tagen signifikant an Gewicht.
Weitere wichtige Faktoren, die im Regenerationsprozess eine Rolle spielen, sind Wachstumsfaktoren. Genexpressionsanalysen und histologische Färbungen verdeutlichen, dass Tregs die Induktion von Wachstumsfaktoren mitbestimmen.
Zusammengefasst bedeutet dies, dass Tregs im akuten Pankreatitis-Modell die T-Effektor-Immunantwort supprimieren und dadurch den Verlauf der Pankreatitis verschlechtern. Im chronischen Pankreatitis-Modell sorgen Tregs dahingegen für eine Balance der Makrophagenpolarisation, und regulieren den Remodeling-Prozess, indem sie z.B. die Bildung fibrotischem Gewebes limitieren.
Analysis of bioactive lipids from different infection models during bacterial and viral infections
(2021)
Bioactive lipids or lipid mediators influence numerous processes like the reproduction, the bone turnover, the pain perception, the cardiovascular function and the immune system. Eicosanoids and oxylipins are parts of the immunomodulatory lipid mediators, which can be synthesized from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) by enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Typical members of eicosanoids are prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The properties of bioactive lipids include the activation of inflammatory reactions as well as the support of resolution. Like hormones, they act locally restricted and in low concentrations. Further bioactive lipids exist i.e. intermediates of the sphingolipid class. The biosynthesis of some of these compounds like the prostaglandins can be influenced by different drugs whereas for other groups of lipid selective inhibitors are still missing. Their impact on inflammatory processes and against chronic diseases has already been analyzed, while studies in context with infection are largely limited. Infection of the upper respiratory tract caused by viral and bacterial pathogens constitute a huge burden for the human healthcare. The main pathogens are the Influenza A virus (IAV), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) and Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes). Besides mono-infection with one of these pathogens, frequently occurring bacto-viral co-infections exist, which negatively influence the etiopathology. The main task of the immune system is the detection and the elimination of pathogens, which can essentially be affected by lipid mediators. Their instability due to oxidizability, the existence of regioisomers and the low abundance of eicosanoids and other oxylipins are the main problems for their analytical measurement.
The mayor objective of this dissertation was the establishment of a suitable analytical method for selected lipid mediators and the detection of infection-related changes. The separation and detection was performed by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with triple quad mass spectrometry. This combination is called tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The MS parameters were optimized for approximately 30 lipid mediators by use of chemical standards and the detection was achieved by dynamic multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Furthermore, the spatial resolution of selected sphingolipids was analyzed in tissue samples using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MS-Imaging). Concerning the HPLC-MS/MS detection, an MS method was established and optimized with standard compounds. Another crucial part of the establishment was the extraction of bioactive lipids from the different sampling materials. Whereas well tested protocols exist for the extraction and detection of lipid mediators, such protocols for MALDI-MS-Imaging are still limited due to the novelty of this measurement. Ultimately, robust and reproducible protocols for both techniques that were used for the analysis of a broad array of samples from infection experiments were established for both techniques. The analyses of infected cell culture, mice and pigs revealed infection-related perturbations of host lipid mediator levels. Depending on the scientific issue, the sample types cell pellets, lungs, spleens, livers, blood plasmas, pawns including bones or bronchoalveolar lavages were analyzed. For MALDI-MS-Imaging, the spatial distribution of sphingolipids in lung and spleen was detected.
The present dissertation includes four coherent research scopes, in which the pathogen impact on host-derived lipid mediators was detected with the above mentioned analytical methods. The infection models epithelial cells (article II), mouse (article III and IV) and pig (article I) – the latter as the most human like model - showed different aspects of the host-pathogen interaction. The analysis of samples from IAV infection for all three hosts revealed a couple of similarities for some oxylipins that were also described in human infections. Additionally, cell culture and mouse samples from mono-infections as well as co-infections with the pathogens S. aureus and S. pneumoniae were measured. In particular for the bacterial mono- and co-infections, these are the first published results with aspects of infection related changes of lipid mediators. The additional spatial resolution of the sphingolipid intermediates sphingosine 1-phosphate and ceramide 1-phosphate revealed important new insights into their tissue distribution and changes during co-infection.
Article I describes the IAV-specific oxylipin changes in the pig (german landrace) as infection model. Therefore, the sample types lung, spleen, blood plasma, and bronchoalveolar lavage from infected animals at different time points after infection were analyzed and compared with samples from uninfected pigs. Mainly in the lung and the spleen, increased amounts of certain lipid mediators were observed. These changes coincide well with already described alterations in humans and mice. Furthermore, the analysis of different sample material provided an overview about appropriate sample types. Surprisingly, many perturbations were detected in the spleen, which itself was uninfected. Based on the local reaction of lipid mediators, most studies concentrate on sample material with close contact to side of infection. Therefore, this dissertation reveals new insights into a form of systemic immune response. Besides the use of animals with a complex immune system for infection experiments, human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) were mono- and co-infected with the pathogens S. aureus, S. pneumoniae and IAV as described in article II. Such cells are the initial barrier for and first contact site with pathogens and thus the comprehension of this host-pathogen interaction is of essential importance. Most changes were detected during pneumococcal infection. Furthermore, the analyzed infections with bacterial pathogens differed from IAV infection by an increased synthesis of 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE). For further infections with the above mentioned pathogens, the mouse was used as an infection model. Besides infections affecting the respiratory tract, also the impact of an S. pyogenes infection in different mice strains was analyzed and described in article III. Infection-related changes in prostaglandins, which are involved in bone turnover in swollen pawns as well as enhanced amounts of sepsis- and arthritis-associated lipid mediators were detected, in case arthritis had been induced prior to infection. Furthermore, increased amounts of 20-HETE could be observed for such severe infections. An enhanced biosynthesis of 20-HETE was further confirmed in a high-pathogenic S. aureus LUG2012 infection in article IV for all examined sample types. In this last article of this dissertation, bacterial and viral infections in mice were analyzed similar to those described in article II. Mainly IAV-specific lipid mediator alterations were detected, which are in accordance with the findings of the infected pigs. The additional MALDI-MS-Imaging measurements revealed so far unknown accumulation of ceramide 1-phosphate in lung and spleen as well as enrichment in the red pulp of the spleen.
In summary, this dissertation provides substantial lipid mediator profiles for infections in three different model systems with selected bacterial and viral pathogens. The obtained data constitute a suitable basis for continuative research projects, in which the influence of single bioactive lipids on the course of infection could be examined in more detail.
On the aqueous phase chemistry of atmospheric-pressure plasma jets for biomedical applications
(2021)
Cold atmospheric-pressure plasmas are candidate biomedical tools proposed for various applications, such as biological decontamination, cancer regression, and promotion of wound healing. Plasmas, which are in the fourth state of matter, can be generated using inert gases (e.g., argon, helium, ambient air) and different source concepts. Together with the applied parameters, the source design defines the chemical-physical characteristics of the resulting plasma, leading in turn to variable biochemical effects on biological matter. The medical effectiveness of cold plasmas has been proven in vitro and in vivo, also in clinical trials for wound healing in patients using two certified plasmas sources, the kINPen MED and the PlasmaDerm. However, molecular mechanisms leading to those effects are unclear. In the same way, it must be studied if the modulation of plasma properties could improve the specificity of biological effects. These findings are needed to define the concept of plasma dose to be optimized in targeting peculiar pathologic conditions. The present thesis consisting of five peer-reviewed publications has investigated these aspects of plasma research.
In the gaseous phase of cold plasmas, various components with biological activity are produced, such as radiation (e.g., vacuum UV, UV) and reactive species (e.g., •O, 1O2, •OH, •NO, •NO2, O3). As most gaseous species are short-lived, liquid compartments surrounding cells and molecular structures could mediate their transformation and/or the production of other aqueous species. For this reason, plasma-induced aqueous chemistry has been mainly investigated in this thesis. The reaction pathways of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in liquid were analyzed by monitoring the oxidative modifications induced on tyrosine and cysteine, which are biological structures essential in cellular protein functioning. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-based strategies have been elaborated to elucidate structural changes and characterize the oxidative pattern occurring on the tracers after treatment with plasmas.
As a first result, it could be shown that the oxidative pattern induced on tyrosine or cysteine variated qualitatively and quantitatively with the applied conditions, reflecting the action of differently produced/deposited species in liquid. Biologically relevant structures were identified and in part quantified (e.g., cystine, sulfonic acid, sulfinic acid, S-sulfonate, S-nitrosocysteine, nitrotyrosine, nitrosotyrosine). By using isotopically labeled oxygen or nitrogen in the gas plasma, or labeled oxygen in the target liquid, the incorporation of gaseous or aqueous species in the tracer’s structures was monitored via mass spectrometry. With this strategy, the reaction mechanisms involving gaseous oxygen and nitrogen species at the liquid interface were clarified, as well as the de novo production of reactive species in liquid. Short-lived gaseous oxygen species such as atomic and singlet oxygen (•O, 1O2), predominantly formed in conditions with oxygen in the plasma gas, were able to modify the cysteine structures in highly oxidized derivatives, such as cysteine sulfonic acid. Due to their half-life, however, their activity occurred mainly at the interface. Vacuum UV radiation and •O also led to the formation in liquid of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), due to water photolysis and homolysis. Water-derived species were responsible for the formation of reversible modifications, such as cysteine S-sulfonate, cystine, and cystine sulfoxides. Nitrosative modifications (e.g., S-nitrosocysteine, nitrosotyrosine, nitrotyrosine) could be observed only in conditions with both nitrogen and oxygen in the plasma gas, and further optimization occurred in presence of water molecules in the gas. In this case, the formation and action of peroxynitrite (ONOO-) in generating nitrotyrosine was proven by using a scavenger molecule for ONOO-.
Finally, the cysteine product pattern was applied as a tool to characterize and compare the overall chemistry generated in liquid by different plasma sources and applied parameters. These findings aim to support and contribute to the definition of plasma dose for plasma medicine, through the standardization, control, tuning, and optimization of plasma parameters and plasma liquid chemistry. These results may be applied in the future to improve the specificity and selectivity of the biological effects generated by the described atmospheric-pressure plasma jets.
Blood platelets are primary major players in the coagulation cascade, that act upon damage in blood vessels at the subendothelial surface. During this process, platelets change their shape, release granules and aggregate by cross-linking of integrin αIIbβ3 via fibrinogen. The heterodimeric transmembrane receptor integrin αIIbβ3 is highly expressed on platelets and its regulation is bidirectional. Inside-out signaling leads to increased affinity for ligands due to dramatic rearrangements in the integrin conformation changing from an inactive bent conformation to an extended, high-affinity conformation. The swing-out motion of the integrin head domain enables binding of ligands, e.g. fibrinogen, resulting in outside-in signaling guiding kinase activation, shape change, platelet aggregation and spreading, subsequently.
Agonists (e.g. thrombin) and other triggers (e.g. shear stress) promote the activity of platelets, making the study of specific proteins delicate. Therefore, this PhD thesis describes a biomimetic system used to study αIIbβ3 membrane receptors. Integrin αIIbβ3 was successfully reconstituted into liposomes and characterized by biophysical and molecular biological methods (e.g. dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy and flow cytometry). The fusion of liposomes to a solid substrate allows the analysis of potential activation triggers and interaction partners concerning their role in integrin αIIbβ3 activation in a lipid bilayer. Among others, quartz-crystal microbalance measurements show that divalent ions and clinically relevant drugs (e.g. unfractionated heparin and quinine), known to be involved in immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), are certainly candidates which induce integrin activation and minor changes in protein secondary structure. In addition, protein corona formation during contact of nanoparticles with blood components, such as fibrinogen, as well as their interaction with artificial platelet model membranes containing integrins were studied. Moreover, lipid environment can be strongly controlled as integrin activation is dependent on the ratio of liquid-ordered and disordered phases within the membrane. Eventually, by exclusion of disturbances of complex external and internal factors, the established system enables the interaction analysis of various substances with receptors under physiological conditions. In contrast, these disturbances are required to understand the complex machinery of cellular processes in vivo. Hence, an expression platform, on the basis of HEK293 cells, was established to study not only the interaction of integrin αIIbβ3 with cytoskeletal networks, but also the impact of mutations on integrin resulting in a disease-like phenotype. Mutations known to induce Glanzmann thrombasthenia (GT) symptoms, were introduced and led to different mechanical properties of integrin-expressing cells, especially during cell adhesion cells. Thereby, generation of biological and medically-relevant processes combined with the biophysical setup contribute to understand disease mechanisms as well as the action of therapeutic agents in diseases such as GT and ITP.
Promiscuous acyltransferases enable transesterification reactions in bulk water by preferentially catalyzing acyl transfer over hydrolysis. Until recently, only a small number of promiscuous acyltransferases have been described in the literature, exhibiting several limitations in terms of acyltransferase efficiency and applicability. This work focuses on the discovery of novel promiscuous acyltransferases and the engineering of promiscuous acyltransferases via rational design. Several promiscuous acyltransferases in the bacterial hormone-sensitive lipase family and family VIII carboxylesterases have been identified, demonstrating that promiscuous acyltransferase activity is not a rare phenomenon. Moreover, the efficiency and applicability of the enzymes could be improved via protein engineering in terms of acyltransferase activity, enantioselectivity, and substrate scope.
The aims of this thesis were the identification and development of whole-cell biocatalysts for the regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of steroids, including hormones and bile acids by P450 monooxygenases. Steroids and their derivatives are applied as therapeutic agents. The chemical synthesis of such compounds depends on multi-step procedures, in a stereo- and regiospecific manner involving the protection and deprotection of functional groups and toxic reagents and intermediates. In this thesis, different P450 monooxygenases were investigated as ‘bio-based’ alternatives to chemical catalysts for the late-stage functionalization of steroids and bile acids and engineered by directed evolution procedures towards desired transformation activities. In Article I, the 16α-hydroxylation activity of the bovine CYP17A1 was enhanced by protein engineering to improve the transformation of progesterone into 16α-hydroxyprogesterone in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Article II follows the same line of research and targets the selective synthesis of bile acid derivatives in Escherichia coli (E. coli) whole-cells. The P450 monooxygenase CYP107D1 (OleP) from Streptomyces antibioticus (S. antibioticus) was identified, which selectively hydroxylates bile acids like lithocholic acid (LCA) and deoxycholic acid (DCA) at the 6β-position, yielding murideoxycholic acid (MDCA), a gallstone solubilizing agent, and 3α-,6β-,12α-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid, respectively. The utilization of OleP as catalyst resulted in shorter synthesis routes for both compounds and additional in a higher yield for MDCA. Building on the results of Article II and the protein engineering approach from Article I, Article III deals with the switch of regioselectivity of the identified CYP107D1 from 6β- to 7β-hydroxylation to form the therapeutic agent ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) from LCA by direct hydroxylation. Following a rational protein engineering strategy, a variant with nearly perfect selectivity for UDCA formation was found. Until today, UDCA is either isolated from bile of catheterised farmed bears or produced semisynthetically through low-yielding multistep reactions starting from cholic acid (CA). Article III presents the first reported enzyme for the direct 7β-hydroxylation of LCA to UDCA.
Free radicals are known to induce significant structural and functional modifications to the cell membrane and its components. Biophysical quantification of such changes using single molecule studies highlight the role of these individual biomolecules. In this PhD work, we focus on nitric oxide radical and try to understand how they influence interaction of different biomolecules with lipid membranes by using biomimetic systems. In specific we try to answer how cell membrane permeability and bilayer thickness would be influenced by the nitric oxide radical with different phospholipids compositions (i.e. on planar supported lipid bilayers). Later we tested, interaction of transmembrane protein integrin αiibβ3 incorporated into the bilayer (i.e. nanodiscs) with nitric oxide. Finally, how to overcome the negative effects encountered by the phospholipids and proteins using biopolymer coated gold nanoparticles as delivery system. The study involved use of atomic force microscopy and quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation as primary investigation tools complemented with other relevant biophysical and biochemical techniques.
This thesis deals with the process considerations and optimizations of a whole-cell enzyme cascade reaction for the synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone. The enzyme cascade synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone has been conceptualized and verified using a dehydrogenase and a monooxygenase. The advantage of this enzyme combination is the closed-loop co-factor regeneration. Dehydrogenase and monooxygenase expressed in discrete whole cells were applied in defined ratio to conceptualize the cascade reaction. This necessitates the use of separate co-factor regeneration system due to impermeability of the E. coli cell wall to the co-factor. Article I deal with the design and optimization of dehydrogenase and monooxygenase co-expression in a same E. coli cell. In Article II, the cascade reaction was upscaled and a fed-batch process was realized. Following which, the important reaction metrices were analyzed and optimized. Article III extends the two-enzyme cascade with a lipase. The use of lipase helps to overcome the product inhibition of monooxygenase by ɛ-caprolactone.
Unter promiskuitiver Acyltransferase-Aktivität versteht man die Eigenschaft bestimmter Hydrolasen, in wässriger Lösung bevorzugt Acyltransfer statt Hydrolyse zu katalysieren. Bis vor Kurzem waren nur wenige promiskuitive Acyltransferasen literaturbekannt. Dies führte zu der allgemeinen Annahme, dass diese Aktivität ein seltenes Phänomen in Hydrolasen ist. Diese Arbeit zeigt jedoch, dass promiskuitive Acyltransferase-Aktivität in der Familie der bakteriellen hormonsensitiven Lipasen und Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII weit verbreitet ist. Detaillierte Struktur-Funktions-Analysen ermöglichen die sequenzbasierte Vorhersage und Optimierung der Acyltransferase-Aktivität in beiden Enzymfamilien. Insbesondere die Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII überschreiten die Grenzen des bisher für möglich Gehaltenen, indem sie gute Enantioselektivität bei der kinetischen Racematspaltung sekundärer Alkohole zeigen und darüber hinaus die irreversible Bildung von Amiden und Carbamaten in Wasser katalysieren können. Die biokatalytische Acylierung von Zuckern in Wasser galt lange Zeit als unerreichtes Ziel der Biokatalyse. In dieser Arbeit wurde jedoch gezeigt, dass natürlich vorkommende und modifizierte Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII die regioselektive Acetylierung von Glucose, Maltose und Maltotriose in Wasser mit hoher Effizienz katalysieren können.
Die akute Pankreatitis ist eine der häufigsten nicht malignen gastrointestinalen Erkrankungen, die zu Krankenhausaufenthalten führt. Sie ist als Selbstverdau des Pankreas durch seine eigenen Proteasen wie z.B. Trypsin, Elastase und Chymotrypsin definiert. Als Ursprung der Erkrankung wird die frühzeitige intrazelluläre Aktivierung dieser Verdauungsenzyme angesehen. Dies führt zum Zelltod der Azinuszellen und zur Schädigung des Gewebes.
Während der akuten Pankreatitis kommt es in 20% der Fälle zu einem schweren Verlauf der Erkrankung, der mit Organversagen in der Lunge und den Nieren assoziiert ist. Es ist bekannt, dass es zu einer Entzündungsreaktion kommt, bei der große Mengen an Zytokinen ausgeschüttet werden. Leukozyten infiltrieren das Pankreas und verstärken den Gewebeschaden. Es kommt zur Freisetzung von DAMPs, die das angeborene und adaptive Immunsystem aktivieren. Bislang ist nicht gut untersucht, wie das Immunsystem den schweren Verlauf der akuten Pankreatitis beeinflusst und es gibt wenig Theorien über den Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren.
In dieser Arbeit lag der Fokus auf dem Organschaden in Lunge und Niere und die Wirkung von Interleukin 33 (IL33) auf die Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems und deren Einwanderung in verschiedene Organe während der schweren akuten Pankreatitis im Mausmodell. Die schwere akute Pankreatitis wurde mittels Gangligatur und einmaliger Gabe von Caerulein an Tag 2 nach Gangligatur induziert. An Tag 3 nach Induktion wurden die Mäuse getötet und die Organe wurden für weitere Analysen entnommen.
Am dritten Tag nach Induktion der Pankreatitis kam es zu einem Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren. In der Lunge fand sich eine Verdickung der Alveolarsepten und eine Verdichtung des Gewebes sowie eine Infiltration von Leukozyten und ein Ödem. In der Niere waren ebenfalls strukturelle Veränderungen zu finden und eine Infiltration von Leukozyten war zu beobachten. In durchflusszytometrischen Analysen der Lunge konnte beobachtet werden, dass CD11b+CD62L+ Monozyten während der akuten Pankreatitis signifikant anstiegen. Mittels RT-DC wurde gezeigt, dass diese Monozyten an Tag 3 signifikant an Größe zugenommen hatten. Mit einer CD11b Färbungen von Lungen und Nieren konnte die Infiltration durch Monozyten bestätigt werden. Unter einer Blockade von Monozyten durch systemische Gabe von anti-CCR2-Antikörpern verringerte sich die Schädigung in Lunge und Niere während der Pankreatitis signifikant.
Diese Daten legen nahe, dass der Organschaden in der schweren akuten Pankreatitis durch infiltrierende Monozyten verursacht wird, die über CD62L (L-Selektin) an die Gefäßwände binden und über ihre Größe Gefäße verstopfen, was in den Kapillaren zur Ischämie führt.
In vitro sezernierten Makrophagen, die mit CCK stimulierten Azinuszellen co-inkubiert wurden, IL33. Im Mausmodell wurde IL33 mittels sST2 blockiert, was die Schädigung des Pankreas in der Pankreatitis reduzierte. In IL33-depletierten Tieren fand sich im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ein geringerer Lungenschaden aber eine unveränderte Nierenschädigung. Somit scheint IL33 eine Rolle bei der Monozyten-vermittelten Organschädigung in der Pankreatitis zu spielen, die sich auf Grund von kompensatorischen Regulationsmechanismen im globalen IL33 Knock-out weniger gut belegen lässt als nach IL33 Inhibition. Die Hemmung von IL33 zur Behandlung der akuten Pankreatitis stellt somit ein vielversprechendes Therapieprinzip dar.
S-adenosyl-L-methionine- (SAM) dependent methyltransferases (MTs) catalyse methylation of halide ions and the C, O, N, S, Se, and As atoms of biomolecules ranging from biopolymers to small molecules. They display different chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity according to their specific functions. This thesis focuses on the engineering of O-methyltransferases (OMTs) and halide methyltransferases (HMTs) through rational design and directed evolution to study their structure-function relationship and to explore their catalytic promiscuity. The influence of substrate binding residues on the substrate scope and regioselectivity of a plant OMT against various phenolic substrates (Article I) and flavonoids (Article II) has been investigated. Article III describes the directed evolution of an HMT for the biocatalytic synthesis of diverse SAM analogues. With the evolved HMT, regioselective alkylation of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, as well as the SAM analogue regeneration, were achieved through an HMT-MT cascade reaction.
Article I Specific residues expand the substrate scope and enhance the regioselectivity of a plant O-methyltransferase.
It was reported in literature that an isoeugenol 4-OMT (IeOMT) can be engineered to a caffeic acid 3-OMT (CaOMT) by replacing three consecutive residues. In this article, we investigated the effect of these residues on substrate preference and regioselectivity of IeOMT. The triple mutant T133M/A134N/T135Q and the respective single mutants were constructed and tested against a series of phenolic compounds. The variant T133M had a universal effect to improve enzymatic activities against all tested substrates while the mutant A134N had enhanced regioselectivity. The triple mutant T133M/A134N/T135Q benefits from these two mutations, which not only expanded the substrate scope, but also enhanced the regioselectivity of IeOMT. On the basis of this work, regiospecific methylated phenolics can be produced in high purity by different IeOMT variants.
Article II Influence of substrate binding residues on the substrate scope and regioselectivity of a plant O-methyltransferase against flavonoids
Flavonoid OMTs (FOMTs), isoflavonoid OMTs (IOMTs) and phenylpropanoid OMTs (POMTs) display different substrate preferences. Sequence comparison showed that the substrate binding residues at positions 322 and 326 are different between these OMT groups and might be critical for the substrate discrimination. Residues at positions 322 and 326 in IeOMT (a POMT) were mutated to the commonly presented residues in FOMT and IOMT. The introduced mutants, in cooperation with the variant T133M, have improved or brought novel activities and regioselectivity against the tested flavonoids eriodictyol, naringenin, luteolin, quercetin, and also the isoflavonoid genistein compared to the wild-type IeOMT. On the basis of this work, methylated flavonoids that are rare in nature were produced in high purity.
Article III Directed evolution of a halide methyltransferase enables biocatalytic synthesis of diverse SAM analogs
Biocatalytic alkylations to obtain chemo‐, regio‐ and stereoselectively alkylated compounds can be achieved by MTs with the supply of SAM analogues. It was recently discovered that SAM can be directly synthesized from S adenosyl-L homocysteine (SAH) and methyl iodide, catalysed by an HMT. To explore the promiscuity of HMT in the synthesis of SAM analogues, we performed directed evolution of the Arabidopsis thaliana HMT based on a sensitive, colorimetric iodide assay. The identified variant V140T displayed activities against ethyl‐, propyl‐, and allyl iodides to produce the corresponding SAM analogues. With this HMT variant, regioselective ethylation of luteolin and allylation of 3,4‐dihydroxybenzaldehyde, as well as the SAM analogue regeneration, were achieved through this HMT-MT one-pot cascade reaction.
Electrochemical characterisation of the redox behaviour of quinoide components in membrane models
(2020)
The leading idea of this thesis is to study the effects of (i) membrane composition and (ii) membrane environment (aqueous phases) on the redox properties of membrane-confined redox active compounds. For solutions, it is known since long, how strong solvents affect the redox properties of dissolved redox active species. However, for membranes this question has not yet been addressed, although it can be supposed that such effects may be important to understand the role of membrane-confined redox active compounds in biological systems. To interrogate this problem, a monolayer model was chosen. It consists of a lipid monolayer with embedded menaquinones on mercury electrodes. Since ion transfer across membranes is also a crucial question, in the first part of this project, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was studied as a new redox probe for transferring anions and cation between an organic and an aqueous phase. The important findings of this thesis are: (i) accessing the ion pair equilibrium constant of anions and cations with DPPH redox probe as a model study using the three-phase electrochemistry, (ii) the redox potentials of menaquinone-4, -7, and -9 in 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) monolayers and the acidity constants of menaquinones (MK’s) in membranes monolayer model, and (iii) the effects of membrane composition and the aqueous environment on the thermodynamics and kinetics of MK’s in membrane models.
The synthesis of several bioactive compounds and active pharmaceutical ingredients relies on the development of general and efficient methods to prepare optically pure amines. Transaminases are industrially relevant enzymes and are useful for synthesizing a large number of compounds that contain a chiral amine functionality. Although the immense potential associated to the use of these biocatalysts, the equilibrium position is often unfavorable for amine synthesis. The use of an excess of amine donor, compared to the ketone substrate, combined with selective removal of the formed product, can help in overcoming this limitation. This work mainly focused on broadening the application of membrane-based in situ product recovery (ISPR) techniques for the transaminase-catalyzed synthesis of chiral amines. The
overall work was designed around the implementation of amine donors, possessing considerably larger molecular ‘size’ compared to commonly used amine donors. To clearly
distinguish these molecules from traditional donor amines, we designate them as High Molecular Weigh amine donors. With a molecular weight between 400 and 1500 g/mol, in contrast to traditional donor amines, HMW amine donors enable a size-based separation between amine donor and amine product molecules. HMW amines, provided in excess for thermodynamic equilibrium shifting can thus be simply retained by a size-exclusion mechanism by commercial membranes, while the smaller product amines are permeated. Therefore, a selective recovery of the desired chiral amine product is possible. The implementation of ISPR techniques using HMW amine donors can theoretically lead to (i) equilibrium shifting, (ii) alleviation of product inhibition, and (iii) a highly pure product stream.
The feasibility of using HMW amine donors in aqueous, organic solvent and solvent-free media for the transaminase-catalyzed synthesis of 1-methyl-3-phenylpropylamine (MPPA) was proven in this thesis. The latter two approaches were investigated with the aim to achieve higher product concentrations. Along with that, we demonstrated two membrane-assisted ISPR proof of concepts. Specifically, nanofiltration was coupled with the enzymatic reaction performed in aqueous media (Article I), while liquid-liquid (L-L) extraction in a contactor was applied for transamination in organic solvent media (Article II). As an alternative to membrane-based strategies we also designed a spinning reactor concept for the integrated chiral amine synthesis (in organic solvent) and recovery (Article III).
G-quadruplexes (G4s) have been in the focus of research in the last decades for their regulatory roles in vivo and for their use in nano- and biotechnology. However, an understanding of the various factors that drive a particular quadruplex fold remains limited, challenging rational therapeutic targeting and design of these tetrahelical structures. In this regard, insights from modified G-quadruplexes may help to deepen our knowledge of G-quadruplex structure. In this dissertation, sugar-modified guanosine analogs are exploited for their altered conformational preferences regarding both glycosidic bond angle and sugar pucker by their incorporation into different syn positions of the G-core of a model G-quadruplex. Induced structural perturbations as characterized by NMR spectroscopy range from a local change in tetrad polarity to a complete refolding into an unusual structure with a V-shaped loop, a unique G4 structural element in the focus of this work. Detailed conformational analysis of the introduced G analogs and high-resolution structures of the modified quadruplexes reveal a complex interplay of glycosidic torsion angle, sugar pucker preferences and local interactions, which may all play a leading role in driving G4 folding.
In modern-day organic synthesis, transitional metal catalysis has become an essential tool-kit to access the biologically significant complex organic scaffolds. The activation profile of these sophisticated catalytic systems in cross-coupling chemistry and ring-closing processes has been well appreciated and frequently employed by the scientific community.
The present thesis is describing the results of interdisciplinary research involving medicinal chemistry and transitional metal homogeneous catalysis. A molybdenum mediated process was employed to access 32 unprecedented heterocyclic fused poly sulfur ring containing pentathiepins in moderate to good yields as a part of medicinal chemistry. Biologically significant, such as quinoxaline, pyrazine, pyridine, nicotinamide, quinoline, imdazo-pyrazine, pyrrolo-pyrazine, purine, and pyridine sulfonamide scaffolds were functionalized with pentathiepin unit via multi-step organic synthesis. Essentially, the Sonogashira cross-coupling and(Et4N)2[MoO(S4)2] mediated ring-closing steps were commonly employed in all pentathiepin syntheses. The analytically pure samples were characterized by 1H, 13C, 19F-NMR, FTIR, ESI-MS, CHNS, and X-ray single-crystal diffraction analysis. Notably, all pentathiepins exhibited an ABX3 multiplet pattern between δ: 4.2-4.5 ppm with the integration of 2H for the ethoxy functional group's methylene protons substituted on the five-membered ring of pentathiepin, which was later considered as a fingerprint for pentathiepin formation. The mechanistic investigations via control experiments suggest that the tetra sulfur ring Mo(IV) precursor (Et4N)2[MoO(S4)2] is vital along with elemental sulfur for the pentathiepin formation, and the Mo(IV) complex regenerates in the reaction. Furthermore, For the first time, the GPx1 enzyme inhibitor properties of novel fused heterocyclic pentathiepins were established, where these probes exhibited 9-12 folds higher potency than mercaptosuccinic acid. Notably, <1 µM concentration of quinoxaline, pyrazine, and quinoline fused pentathiepins were potent enough to inhibit 50% of GPx1 enzyme activity. Additionally, cytotoxicity, antimicrobial and antifungal studies were conducted for all pentathiepins. In anticancer investigations, the IC50 concentrations for all pentathiepins were ranging between 0.22 to 4.7 µM.
The second half of the thesis introduces a novel water-soluble Pd/PTABS as a potent catalyst for C-X (X = N, O, and S) cross-coupling chloroheteroarenes and halonucleosides. The novel, mild and efficient Pd/PTABS catalytic system was successfully employed at low catalytic loadings (1 mol%) for the amination (C−N), etherification (C−O), and thioetherification (C−S) of chloroheteroarenes at ambient to moderate temperatures. The Pd/PTABS catalyst is well-tolerating various heterocyclic scaffolds, and under the optimized catalytic conditions, various secondary amines, electron-rich or electron-poor phenols, thiophenols, and alkylthiols, were efficiently employed as nucleophilic coupling partners. Notably, the catalyst offered tremendous regio and chemoselectivity with excellent temperature control. Besides, novel sulfones and sulfoximines were prepared from the thioethers obtained via Pd/PTABS. The catalyst was employed efficiently for synthesizing biologically significant known drugs or drug candidates such as alogliptin (anti-diabetic agent), XRK 469 (antitumor agent), and Imuran-Azathioprine (immunosuppressive) in competitive yields. Preliminary DFT investigations were performed, and based on the DFT analysis, the electropositive character of the phosphorous atom in quaternary ammonium salts of PTABS supports the heteroatom directed C−Cl activation hypothesis.
The aim of our research is a stereoselective synthesis development of 4-aminocyclohexanol by the application of a keto reductase (KRED) and an amine transaminase (ATA). 4-Aminocyclohexanol is a valuable precursor for active pharmaceutical ingredients, for example, lomibuvir (a HCV protease inhibitor), ambroxol (a secretolytic agent) and other bioactive molecules. Today, the trans-4-aminocyclohexanol is accessed via Ni-catalyzed synthetic procedure giving moderate yields. In our project we perform cis- and trans-4-aminocyclohexanol synthesis from 1,4-cyclohexanedione (a bio-based precursor) by an one-pot approach combining sequentially a KRED and an ATA as catalysts. For this, we envisaged two multistep enzymatic procedures. The route A would involve 4-hydroxycyclohexanone formation from 1,4-cyclohexanedione via a KRED-catalyzed monoreduction and a further transamination mediated by an ATA towards 4-aminocyclohexanol. The route B would consist of switching the steps of the previous sequential approach, that is, a monoamination of the diketone to yield 4-aminocyclohexanone, and the subsequent reduction of the remaining carbonyl group. Only route A turned out to be feasible, and we performed 4-aminocyclohexanol synthesis at the preparative scale in the sequential and tandem modes. Depending on the ATA, both isomers can be obtained.
The definition of Green Chemistry was first formulated at the beginning of the 1990s – 30 years ago and states as follows: “design of chemical products and processes to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances” (Poliakoff et al. 2002). Biocatalysis is one of the examples of “green” chemistry as it is relying on natural or modified enzymes. Today, biocatalysis is a standard technology for the production of chemicals (Straathof et al. 2002).
In this PhD thesis, the implications of biocatalysis using different class of enzymes are discussed: two cytochrome P450 monoxygenases, two kinases and one lyase are shown as tools for the production of bioactive compounds.
The P450 enzymes have a central role in the oxidative metabolism of a wide variety of compounds including the synthesis of endogenous substrates such as steroids and fatty acids. Moreover, P450s catalyze the hydroxylation of non-activated carbon atoms in a regio- and stereospecific fashion avoiding use of protecting groups and several, time-consuming chemical steps.
Here, the recombinant expression and biocatalytic characterization of bacterial CYP107D1 for the regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of two steroid compounds is reported. Since the natural electron transfer partners of these P450s are unknown, PdX and PdR from P. putida were employed to supply CYP107D1 with the necessary electrons for catalysis. This three-component system was used in bioconversions of two bile acids: LCA and DCA. P450 CYP107D1 exhibits high regio- and stereoselectivity for the tested steroids, giving 6β-hydroxylated products. The properties of the CYP107D1 make this multifaceted P450 monooxygenase an attractive enzyme for the production of novel drug metabolites. Moreover, the crystal structure of the enzyme is known, which provides the basis for developing a protein-engineering strategy aimed at catalytic properties of the CYP107D1
The second enzyme described in the thesis is the self-sufficient cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Fusarium graminarium (FG067). From the overall structure, it resembles the well investigated CYP102 from Bacillus megaterium (CYP BM3) and the P450 from Fusarium oxysporum (CYPfoxy). In this study, two different strategies to recombinantly produce the fungal P450 monooxygenase P450-FG067, namely (a) producing in E. coli and (b) producing in P. pastoris were investigated. The P450 FG_067 from Fusarium graminarium was successfully overexpressed in P. pastoris. The enzyme was functionally active, converted fatty acid substrates of carbon chain length C10-16 with regiospecificity of the hydroxylating position ω -1, ω - 2 and ω-3, with the highest affinity for capric acid. The hydroxylation at different positions of the fatty acid chain is needed for different chemical industries. For example, ω-HFAs can be used as starting materials for the synthesis of polymers, with high resistance to heat or chemicals (Xiao et al. 2018). Therefore, the application of recombinant enzyme such as self-sufficient P450 FG_067 for a commercial production of HFAs is in high industrial demand.
In this thesis, two kinases were used for the producton of phosphorylated metabolites. Kinases catalyzing N-phosphorylation, which are of synthetic interest because of tedious chemical procedures in selective chemical N-phosphorylations. A highly active and stabile arginine kinase, obtained by cloning and expressing the argK gene from Limulus polyphemus in E. coli, was used in the one-step synthesis of Nω-phospho-L-arginine using the phosphoenolpyruvate/pyruvate kinase system for ATP regeneration. Applying arginine kinase in biocatalysis opens up new opportunities for the selective biocatalytic N-phosphorylation of interesting low-molecular-weight compounds and metabolites.
Another kinase investigated in this thesis was shikimate kinase. The highly active and stable shikimate kinase AroL was achieved by synthesizing the codon-optimized aroL gene and expressing it in high yield in E. coli. Next, shikimate kinase was used in an one-step synthesis of shikimate-3-phosphate using the phosphoenolpyruvate/pyruvate kinase system for ATP regeneration. Development of the described biocatalytic preparation of shikimate-3-phosphate is a superior route incomparison to a tedious multi-step and low yield classical synthesis of this compound. The biocatalytic phosphorylation is of great interest for a commercial production of metabolites and metabolite-like structures.
The last investigeted enzyme in this PhD thesis was argininosuccinate lyase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The argininosuccinate lyase was cloned and overexpressed in E. coli as a highly active and stable biocatalyst. A simple and straightforward biocatalytic asymmetric Michael addition reaction has been established for the synthesis of the key metabolite N-(([(4S)-4-amino-4-carboxybutyl]amino)imino methyl)-L-aspartic acid, commonly referred to as L-argininosuccinate. This one-step addition reaction was developed by running part of the urea cycle in reverse. The use of this argininosuccinate lyase and reaction monitoring by NMR enabled the development of a biocatalytic asymmetric Michael addition reaction as a novel green chemistry route with high molecular economy for the synthesis of this important metabolite at gram scale.
Recent advances in the field of scientific research have helped to understand the structure and functional activities of enzymes, which has in turn led to an increase in their stability, activity and substrate specificity. Nowadays, biocatalysis provide more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting methods for the production of fine chemicals and advanced pharmaceutical intermediates. The biocatalysts used in this thesis are introduced as a technology for the efficient synthesis of biologically active compounds, which is greener, reduces pollution and costs compared to chemical synthesis. In summary, the pharmaceutical industry should use the advantage of the progress of biochemistry to obtain biocatalysts in the production of fine chemicals on an industrial scale, improving the quality of end products and saving costs.
Das klarzellige Nierenzellkarzinom (ccRCC) ist eine von vielen Krebserkrankungen. Viele Patienten weisen eine Mutation im Von-Hippel-Lindau-Gen (VHL) auf und/ oder zeigen eine Überexpression des Enzyms Nicotinamid-N-Metyltransferase (NNMT).
Es wurden insgesamt fünf etablierte Zelllinien verwendet, die embryonale Nierenzelllinie HEK-293 und vier ccRCC-Zelllinien (Caki-1, Caki-2, 769-P, 786-O), welche sich in ihrer Expression der Proteine NNMT und VHL unterscheiden.
Zudem wurde eine stabile Zelllinie aus den Caki-2 Zellen generiert, die durch ein Doxycyclin induzierbares Tet-On-System NNMT vermehrt exprimiert (C2NNMTs).
Es wurden sowohl molekularbiologische als auch biochemische Methoden zur Analyse angewendet.
Die Zelllinien wurden für Transfektionsstudien zur Überexpression oder zum Knockdown von NNMT genutzt, um die Einflussnahme auf die Enzyme Nikotinamid-phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), Methioninadenosyltransferase-2 β-Untereinheit (MAT2B) und Aldehydoxidase (AOX1) zu analysieren.
Da SAM (S-Adenosylmethionin) der Methyldonor von NNMT ist, wurde auch der Einfluss der Methioninkonzentration betrachtet. Viele der bisherigen publizierten Versuche wurden bei 100 µM Methionin durchgeführt, was jedoch nicht der humanen Serumkonzentration entspricht, welche bei 20 µM Methionin liegt.
Umfangreiche massenspektrometrische Analysen führten zur Identifizierung weiterer Proteine, welche durch die NNMT-Modulation beeinflusst wurden. Die Identifikation einer Vielzahl veränderter Targets verdeutlichte den Einfluss auf den Energiemetabolismus bis hin zur Apoptose. Es zeigten sich unterschiedliche Regulationen von Glykolyse-, Respirations-, Citratzyklus-, Pentosephosphatweg- und Lipidsyntheseproteinen. Insgesamt ergaben sich individuelle, zellspezifische Regulierungen, welche auf die Sirtuine zurückzuführen sind.
Weiterhin wurden Untersuchungen zur erhöhten Expression von NNMT unter Einfluss von Nikotinamid (NAM) sowie Interleukin-6 (IL-6) durchgeführt. Die Analysen zeigten, dass zwischen der Pseudohypoxie und der Erhöhung der NNMT-Expression ein Zusammenhang besteht, denn IL-6 phosphoryliert ERK (engl. Extracellular-signal Regulated Kinases) und STAT3 (engl. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3), welche beide benötigt werden, um die Transkription des NNMT-Gens zu beeinflussen und die NNMT-Proteinexpression zu fördern.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchungen sollen dazu dienen, die biochemischen Zusammenhänge einer veränderten Expression von NNMT besser zu verstehen und damit neue diagnostische Ansätze zu ermöglichen.
Polykristallines Gold wurde bereits seit dem Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts elektrochemisch charakterisiert und seit Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts regelmäßig als Arbeitselektrode in der elektrochemischen Analytik genutzt. Fälschlicherweise und trotz erster gegenteiliger Indizien, dominierte die Annahme, dass mechanisches Polieren die einzelnen Einkristallflächen des polykristallinen Materials freilegen würde, und dass deren statistisch gewichtetes elektrochemisches Verhalten reproduzierbar abgebildet werden könne. Mit dem Aufkommen neuer und verbesserter Verfahren zur Erzeugung hochwertiger Einkristallflächen parallel zur Entwicklung und Verbreitung leistungsstarker Techniken zur Oberflächenanalyse, konzentrierte sich die Goldforschung ab der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts auf die Charakterisierung der Einkristallflächen, ohne jedoch die neugewonnenen Erkenntnisse für die Interpretation des polykristallinen Materials zu nutzen. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war daher die Kombination elektrochemischer Methoden (lineare und zyklische Voltammetrie) mit modernen Oberflächenanalysetechniken (Röntgendiffraktion, elektrochemische Unterpotentialabscheidung von Blei-Ionen) und bildgebenden Verfahren (AFM, STM, REM) zur Charakterisierung verschieden vorbehandelter polykristalliner Goldelektroden. Zudem sollte das elektrochemische Verhalten dieser Elektroden basierend auf dem bisherigen Wissen über das Verhalten der Einkristallflächen interpretiert werden. Der Großteil der erzielten Ergebnisse wurden in den drei Publikationen veröffentlicht, die den Hauptteil dieser Dissertation bilden. Zunächst konnte eine temporäre Aktivierung mittels mechanischer oder elektrochemischer Bearbeitung sowie eine Inaktivierung durch chemisches Ätzen in sauerstoffgesättigter Kaliumcyanidlösung, bezüglich der Sauerstoffreduktion als Referenzreaktion nachgewiesen werden, wobei Aktivierung und Inaktivierung relativ sind und im Zusammenhang mit der Anzahl sogenannter aktiver Zentren auf der Elektrodenoberfläche stehen (Publikation 1). Darüber hinaus erwiesen sich kontinuierliche Oxidations- und Reduktionszyklen an polierten polykristallinen Goldelektroden in schwefelsaurer Lösung als eine neue, Zusatzstoff freie Methode für die Goldnanopartikelsynthese, da diese wohldefinierte und immobilisierte Goldkristallite auf den Elektrodenoberflächen erzeugt (Publikation 2). Die sequenzielle Kombination aus Argon-Ionenstrahlätzen und thermischem Ausheizen hat sich hingegen als effiziente Methode zur Erzeugung sauberer und glatter Elektrodenoberflächen mit hoher atomarer Ordnung erwiesen (Publikation 3). Zugleich konnte gezeigt werden, dass polykristallines Gold ein eigenständiges Material ist, dessen Eigenschaften und Verhaltensweisen nicht ausschließlich auf das statistisch gewichtete elektrochemische Verhalten der einzelnen Einkristallflächen zurückzuführen sind, sondern auch von anderen energetischen Aspekten, wie beispielsweise der Koordination der Oberflächenatome im Kristallgitter, bedingt werden (Publikation 2 und 3).
In contrast to its terrestrial counterpart, the metabolic degradation of marine polysaccharides is underexplored. This work aimed to functionally characterize ulvan- and xylan-degrading enzymes from marine Bacteroidetes in order to clarify the metabolic degradation pathway. For the provision of a broad polysaccharide substrate spectrum, ulvan from several different algal sources was extracted to be used in further characterization experiments. The structural differences of these ulvans could be demonstrated by enzymatic degradation with ulvan-active enzymes. In order to clarify the synergistic catalytic effects of polysaccharide sulfatases with GHs in the degradation process of ulvan, several putative sulfatases from F. agariphila were produced recombinantly in E. coli. For that, a coexpression with an FGE encoding gene was required. It could be demonstrated that several glycoside hydrolases are inhibited, if their
substrate is sulfated at the cleavage position and that a previous desulfation using one of the sulfatases enabled the further degradation. Some of the sulfatases showed an endolytic or exolytic cleavage behavior like reported for several GHs. With the combined catalytic activities, it was possible to successfully elucidate the complex ulvan degradation mechanism for the first time, which enables the use of ulvan as a biotechnological source for the production of fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals. This degradation mechanism was shown to be complemented by an alternative pathway that helps with the degradation of uronic acid-containing oligosaccharides. Here, the synergistic effects of a multimodular enzyme containing a sulfatase and rhamnosidase domain were demonstrated. Furthermore, the first dehydratase participating in the degradation of oligosaccharides was revealed. The functional characterization of putative xylan-targeting PULs from two Flavobacteriia revealed the existence of marine endolytic and exolytic xylanases. The enzymes of these PULs were produced recombinantly in E. coli and were used in biocatalysis reactions on xylan from beechwood, xylan from P. palmata or commercial xylooligosaccharide standards. Further side chain-active GHs were found to exclusively be active on either standards or xylan. The great variation of genetic equipment was demonstrated by comparing the enzyme activities of these PUL structures assuming different ecological adaptations of these organisms especially, because these PULs do not code for any putative sulfatases, which is uncommon for PULs targeting xylan. A different degradation behavior of the investigated enzymes suggested a preferred conversion of β-1,4-linked xylan, potentially present in some microalgae. The acquired insight of the metabolic ulvan and xylan utilization greatly expands the scientific knowledge about the ecologic interplays in marine environments concerning the polysaccharide utilization. It indicates the necessity of backup mechanisms for metabolic processes in order to get access to complex marine carbon sources in nature. Several small degradation cascades complement each other to break down substrate compounds to monomeric level for the use of structurally diverse polysaccharides. This expands the insights into the metabolic processes in the degradation of marine polysaccharides, which are an important part of the understanding of the ecological interactions in aquatic habitats and the ocean’s carbon cycle.
The characterization of ulvan- and xylan-active enzymes and the clarification of their substrate scopes allow to use these enzymes in future production of carbohydrate-derived chemical products for many industrial applications, making it possible to use algal waste for recycling to high value materials with even beneficial effect for the environment.
In 2010, the identification of 17 novel (R)-ATAs represented a breakthrough for the biocatalytic asymmetric synthesis of chiral amines, because only one (R)-ATA was described before. These novel ATAs were identified in a bioinformatic approach by studying the substrate acceptance of BCATs and DATAs to deduce the unknown substrate coordination of (R)-ATAs. Article I describes an alternative approach for the identification of (R)-ATA activity by reengineering the substrate- recognition site of α-AATs. While the engineering of the eBCAT led to the formation of an initial (R)-amine acceptance only, the (R)-ATA activity was successfully introduced in the DATA scaffold. These results demonstrate the transformation of an α-AAT in a moderately active (R)-ATA for the first time and highlight the evolutionary relationship between α-AATs and ATAs. Despite the availability of different ATAs nowadays, their substrate spectrum is limited due to the natural composition of their active sites. Several protein-engineering studies showed the widening of the substrate spectrum and the acceptance of bulky substrates by screening large mutant libraries to identify beneficial variants. In Article II, we developed an in silico engineering approach for amine transaminases to improve the conversion of bulky substrates and to reduce the number of variants to be tested in the laboratory. The resulting double-mutants of the (S)-ATA from C. violaceum displayed a >200-fold improved activity towards the bulky benchmark substrate. These variants expand the available biocatalytic toolbox for the synthesis of bulky amines, and the developed framework paves the way for rational protein-engineering protocols.
By studying unconventional transaminase substrates, we explored the potential of the available in- house transaminase toolbox in Articles III, IV, V, and VI. In Article III, we showed the transamination of a β-keto ester, leading to the synthesis of β-phenylalanine. The described cascade in Article IV enables the synthesis of amino carbohydrates. In addition, Article V describes an enzymatic cascade for the synthesis of amino fatty acids, which was extended in Article VI to obtain fatty amines.
The findings of this thesis clearly contribute to the understanding of the substrate scope and specificity of amine transaminases and expand the application of this versatile biocatalyst beyond classical ketone substrates.
Analyse der metabolischen Anpassung von Streptococcus pneumoniae an antimikrobielle Umwelteinflüsse
(2019)
Das Gram-positive Bakterium Streptococcus pneumoniae ist ein humanspezifisches Pathogen des oberen Respirationstraktes. Der opportunistische Krankheitserreger kann jedoch mehrere Organe befallen und tiefer in den Körper vordringen, was zu lokalen Entzündungen wie Sinusitis und Otitis media oder zu lebensbedrohlichen Infektionen wie Pneumonie, Meningitis oder Sepsis führen kann. Für das Bakterium S. pneumoniae wurden bisher kaum Metabolom-Daten erhoben. Daher war das Ziel dieser Dissertation eine umfassende Charakterisierung des Metaboloms von S. pneumoniae. In dieser Dissertation wurden als analytische Methoden die Gaschromatografie (GC) und Flüssigkeitschromatografie (LC) jeweils gekoppelt mit Massenspektrometrie (MS) sowie die Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie (NMR) verwendet, um die Metaboliten zu analysieren. Es sind mehrere Analysetechniken erforderlich, um den Großteil des Metaboloms mit seinen chemisch verschiedenen Metaboliten zu erfassen. Artikel I fasst die Literatur zu Untersuchungen des Metabolismus von S. pneumoniae in den letzten Jahren zusammen. Um eine Momentaufnahme des biologischen Systems zum jeweiligen Zeitpunkt zu erhalten, ist neben dem reproduzierbaren Wachstum während der Kultivierung auch die exakte Probenahme zu beachten. Aus diesem Grund wurde in dieser Dissertation ein Probenahmeprotokoll für das Endometabolom von S. pneumoniae etabliert (Artikel II). Mithilfe des optimierten Protokolls wurde eine umfassende Metabolomanalyse in einem chemisch definierten Medium durchgeführt (Artikel II). Um S. pneumoniae in einer Umgebung ähnlich der im Wirt zu untersuchen, wurde in einem modifizierten Zellkulturmedium kultiviert. Intermediate zentraler Stoffwechselwege von S. pneumoniae wurden analysiert. Das intrazelluläre Stoffwechselprofil wies auf einen hohen glykolytischen Flux hin und bot Einblicke in den Peptidoglykan-Stoffwechsel. Darüber hinaus widerspiegelten die Ergebnisse die biochemische Abhängigkeit von S. pneumoniae von aus dem Wirt stammenden Nährstoffen. Ein umfassendes Verständnis der Stoffwechselwege von Pathogenen ist wichtig, um Erkenntnisse über die Anpassungsstrategien während einer Infektion zu gewinnen und so neue Angriffspunkte für Wirkstoffe zu identifizieren.
Die zunehmende Verbreitung von resistenten S. pneumoniae-Stämmen zwingt zur Suche nach neuen antibiotisch wirksamen Substanzen. Im Zuge dessen wurde in Artikel III die metabolische Reaktion von S. pneumoniae während des Wachstums unter dem Einfluss antibakterieller Substanzen mit dem Ziel der Identifizierung metabolischer Anpassungsprozesse untersucht. Dabei wurden Antibiotika mit unterschiedlichen Wirkmechanismen verwendet, wie die Beeinflussung der Zellwandbiosynthese (Cefotaxim, Teixobactin-Arg10), der Proteinbiosynthese (Azithromycin) sowie Nukleotidsynthese (Moxifloxacin). Es konnten keine Wirkmechanismus-spezifischen Marker-Metaboliten identifiziert werden. Jedes Antibiotikum verursachte weitreichende Veränderungen im gesamten Metabolom von S. pneumoniae. Die Nukleotid- und Zellwandsynthese waren am stärksten betroffen. Besonders vielversprechend sind Antibiotika mit zwei Wirkorten wie Teixobactin-Arg10 und Kombinationen aus zwei Antibiotika. In dieser Dissertation wurde das erste Mal das synthetisch hergestellte Teixobactin-Arg10 mittels einer der modernen OMICS-Techniken untersucht. Die vorliegende umfassende Metabolom-Studie bietet wertvolle Erkenntnisse für Forscher, die an der Identifizierung neuer antibakterieller Substanzen arbeiten.
Insgesamt tragen die Ergebnisse der Dissertation zu einem besseren Verständnis der bakteriellen Physiologie bei.
Aufgrund der extremen Instabilität des Molybdän Cofaktors (MoCo) ist eine genauere Untersuchung der aktiven Zentren der lebenswichtigen MoCo-abhängigen Enzyme allein durch biochemische Methoden fast unmöglich. Hierfür liefert eine chemische Modellierung des Cofaktors die einzige Möglichkeit einen tieferen Einblick in seine Struktur und Funktion.
Die vorliegende Dissertation ermöglicht einen weitaus tieferen Einblick in Struktur-Funktionsbeziehung des Molybdän-Cofaktors hinsichtlich des zentralen Metalls und des Molybdopterin-Liganden. Zunächst wurde die Rolle des Molybdänzentrums in den Modellverbindungen detailliert analysiert. Hierfür wurde in den synthetisierten Modellen Molybdän mit Rhenium, ausgetauscht. Die erhaltenen Komplexe wurden zuerst umfangreichend durch verschiedene Methoden Kristallstrukturanalyse, IR-, Raman-, NMR-, 2D-NMR-Spektroskopie, temperaturabhängige Elektrochemie und quantenchemischen Berechnungen analysiert und auf Analogien und Unterschiede verglichen. Dabei wurde auf der Suche eines MoCo-Modells, das die richtige Balance zwischen katalytischer Aktivität und Stabilität besitzt, untersucht, ob Rhenium eine potenzielle Alternative zu Molybdän darstellen kann.
Um einen tieferen Einblick in die Chemie des Pterin-Strukturabschnitts von MoCo zu erschaffen, beschäftigt sich diese Arbeit mit der Feinabstimmung von Chinoxalin- und Pterin-Dithiolen-Liganden sowie mit der Entwicklung deren Molybdän-Komplexen. Dazu konnten neuartige Chinoxalin- und Pterin-Dithiolen-Liganden synthetisiert werden, die als Modell-Liganden für die Erforschung der Biosynthese des MoCos fungieren können. Hierin wird die Synthese und die vollständige Charakterisierung eines neuartigen Oxo-Bis(pterin)dithiolen-Molybdän-Komplexes beschrieben. Durch 2D-NMR Spektroskopie konnte die Struktur des erhaltenen Komplexes in Lösung detailliert analysiert werden. Schließlich wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit erstmals durchgeführte Untersuchungen zur Bindung von chemisch synthetisierten MoCo-Modellen mit dem Apoenzym der Trimethylamin-N-Oxid-Reduktase unternommen. Dabei konnte die essenzielle Rolle des Pterin-Gerüstes für die richtige Platzierung des Cofaktors in der Bindungstasche des Apoenzyms etwas näher aufgeklärt werden. Zukünftig könnten noch strukturell genauere MoCo-Modelle den Weg für die Synthese einer semi-artifiziellen Sulfitoxidase, die als eine Behandlungsmöglichkeit der Molybdän-Cofaktor-Defizienz (MoCoD) und der isolierten Sulfitoxidase-Defizienz (iSOD) eingesetzt werden, eröffnen.
Synthesen modifizierter Nukleoside zur Aufklärung der Struktur und Funktion von RNA-Molekülen
(2019)
Im Fokus dieser Arbeit lagen die Synthesen verschiedener Nukleosidderivate zur Aufklärung der Struktur und Funktion von RNA-Molekülen. Es wurden erfolgreich zwei Adenosinderivate synthetisiert und die für die post-synthetische Markierung benötigte Aminofunktion entweder mit Hilfe der Sonogashira-Kupplung an der Position C2 oder der Heck-Reaktion an der Position C8 eingebaut. Um auch Zugang zu modifizierten Cytidinen zu erhalten, wurde eine Synthesestrategie für ein aktiviertes Uridinderivat entworfen, um dieses nach der chemischen Synthese mittels Phosphoramiditverfahren, während der Reinigung, in das dazugehörige Cytidinderivat umzuwandeln. Hierzu wurden die funktionellen Gruppen erfolgreich für die chemische Oligonukleotidsynthese geschützt, die Modifikation an der Position C5 mit Hilfe der Sonogashira-Kupplung eingebaut und die Position C4 mit Hilfe von TIPS-Cl (2,4,6-Triisopropylbenzolsulfonylchlorid) aktiviert. In Vorversuchen konnte die erfolgreiche Umwandlung in das Cytidinderivat experimentell bestätigt werden. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde der Einfluss ausgewählter basenmodifizierter Nukleoside auf den Charakter einer doppelsträngigen RNA untersucht. Dazu wurden die Schmelzkurven und Schmelzpunkte modifizierter und unmodifizierter Oligonukleotide gemessen und ausgewertet. Die erhaltenen Daten lassen darauf schließen, dass der Einbau von basenmodifizierten Nukleosiden zur Senkung des Schmelzpunktes führt, jedoch nicht zur Veränderung des doppelsträngigen Charakters. Eine anschließende Markierung eines modifizierten Oligonukleotids mit dem Farbstoff ATTO 680 scheint nur einen marginalen Einfluss auf den Schmelzpunkt, im Vergleich zu den Schmelzpunkten der modifizierten Oligonukleotide, zu haben. Für die Untersuchung der Funktion und Struktur von größeren RNA-Molekülen, wie zum Beispiel ROSE-Elementen, wurde eine Strategie zu deren Herstellung mit Hilfe der T4 RNA Ligase I entwickelt und ex-perimentell bestätigt. Dazu wurde das ROSE-Element in drei Segmente geteilt, diese chemisch synthetisiert, gereinigt und mit Hilfe der T4 RNA Ligase I zum vollständigen Element ligiert. Dabei konnte das ROSE-Element erfolgreich vom 5´-Terminus aufgebaut werden. Es steht nun eine Methode zur Verfügung, um auch modifizierte Oligonukleotide zu einem ROSE-Element zu ligieren und dieses auf seine Funktion und Struktur hin zu untersuchen. Eine RNA 4-way-junction wurde durch Hybridisierung generiert und für strukturelle Untersuchungen verfügbar gemacht.
Über 40% der derzeit verwendeten Arzneimittel beinhalten Amine als Wirkstoff. Vor allem die Chiralität dieser Moleküle stellt eine immer größere Bedeutung dar. Chirale Moleküle unterscheiden sich in der räumlichen Anordnung der Atome um das chirale Zentrum. Nicht selten besitzen Naturstoffe ein solches chirales Zentrum und sind asymmetrisch aufgebaut. In diesem Zusammenhang ist es nicht verwunderlich, dass die in der Medizin eingesetzten Wirkstoffe einen unterschiedlichen Wirkungsgrad je nach chiraler Konfiguration aufweisen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es neue Methoden zur stereoselektiven Synthese chiraler Amine zu untersuchen. Im Gegensatz zu herkömmlichen chemischen Synthesen, die beispielsweise auf Übergangsmetalle als Katalysatoren setzen, stellen Enzyme als Katalysatoren eine interessente Alternative dar. Stereo-, Regio- und Chemoselektivität ist Enzymen oft von Natur aus gegeben. Im Mittelpunkt der enzymatischen asymmetrischen Synthese optisch aktiver Amine standen bisher Amintransaminasen (ATA), die eine Aminogruppe von einem Amin (Aminodonor) auf ein Keton (Aminoakzeptor) transferieren. Diese Enzyme sind jedoch auf die Synthese primärer Amine beschränkt, sekundäre und tertiäre Amine sind nicht zugänglich. Eine Alternative hierzu stellen Iminreduktasen (IREDs) dar. Dabei handelt es sich um NADPH-abhängige Enzyme, die eine Reduktion von Iminsubstraten zu optisch aktiven Aminen katalysieren. Vor allem die IRED-katalysierte reduktive Aminierung steigerte das Interesse dieser Enzymklasse. In einer reduktiven Aminierung wird nicht das Imin selbst als Substrat eingesetzt, sondern eine prochirales Keton. Dieses formt mit einem Aminsubstrat (Nukleophil) ein Imin und wird anschließend reduziert. Durch diesen Reaktionsweg sind IREDs nicht nur auf zyklische Substrate beschränkt, auch instabile azyklische Imine werden zugänglich.
Die reduktive Aminierung mittels Iminreduktase wurde erstmalig im Jahr 2014 beschrieben und war zu Beginn dieser Arbeit nur als "Proof of Concept" gezeigt worden. Im Rahmen dieser Promotionsarbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese Enzyme die Möglichkeit bieten, optisch aktive Amine mit hohen Umsätzen und Enantiomeren- bzw. Diastereomerenüberschüssen zu synthetisieren.
Charakterisierung der Expression und Funktion metabolischer Enzyme im humanen intestinalen Gewebe
(2019)
Bei der Arzneimittelentwicklung liegt der Fokus nicht nur auf der Wirksamkeit und Sicherheit einer pharmakologisch aktiven Substanz, sondern auch auf einer möglichst einfachen, idealerweise oralen Applikation. Um die benötigten Wirkstoffkonzentrationen im Zielorgan zu erreichen, wird die einzunehmende Dosis eines Medikaments in Abhängigkeit der präsystemischen Elimination ermittelt. Inzwischen ist bekannt, dass nicht ausschließlich der hepatische, sondern auch der intestinale Stoffwechsel die orale Bioverfügbarkeit eines Medikaments wesentlich beeinflussen kann. Arzneistoffe, die während der Darmpassage einer starken Metabolisierung unterliegen, sind zudem prädestiniert für unerwünschte Interaktionen mit anderen Substanzen, welche die entsprechenden Stoffwechselenzyme hemmen oder induzieren. Für die Abschätzung pharmakokinetischer Parameter eines neuen Wirkstoffs sind daher Kenntnisse zur Expression sowie Funktion klinisch relevanter intestinaler Stoffwechselenzyme von Bedeutung.
Bisher publizierte Daten basieren größtenteils auf der Genexpression, obwohl aufgrund posttranskriptionaler Prozesse nicht zwingend Aussagen zur resultierenden Proteinmenge getroffen werden können. Die verfügbaren Daten zum intestinalen Proteingehalt wurden mittels immunologischer Methoden erhoben, die erhebliche Limitationen in Bezug auf Spezifität, Reproduzierbarkeit und Robustheit aufweisen. Diese Aspekte finden bei den inzwischen etablierten LC-MS/MS-basierten Targeted-Proteomics-Methoden Berücksichtigung. Dazu werden die Proteine einer Messprobe enzymatisch gespalten, um entstehende proteospezifische Peptide zur Quantifizierung der Proteine von Interesse zu nutzen.
Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand in der Entwicklung und Validierung einer entsprechenden Methode zur gleichzeitigen Bestimmung von CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT2B7 sowie UGT2B15 in biologischen Matrices, welche die aktuell gültigen Leitlinien in Bezug auf Selektivität, Linearität, Richtigkeit, Präzision und Stabilität erfüllt. Bereits bei der ersten Anwendung der Methode zur Quantifizierung der Enzyme in kommerziell erhältlichen und selbst isolierten Mikrosomen zeigte sich, welchen erheblichen Einfluss die Probenvorbereitung auf die ermittelten Proteingehalte hat.
Diese Erkenntnis wurde im Rahmen eines internationalen Projektes bestätigt, bei dem humane Leberproben desselben Ursprungs in diversen Laboren mit den dort etablierten Methoden prozessiert worden sind. Bezogen auf die eingesetzte Gewebemenge ergaben sich bei der Messung der Mikrosomen 6 - 30-fach geringere Enzymgehalte als bei der Analyse des nicht-fraktionierten Gewebes, da die subzelluläre Aufspaltung einer Probe mit erheblichen Proteinverlusten einhergeht. Folglich wurden alle weiteren Untersuchungen zur absoluten Enzymquantifizierung unter Verwendung von filterbasierten Zentrifugaleinheiten (filter aided sample preparation; FASP) mit Gesamtgewebelysatproben durchgeführt. Sowohl die optimierte Probenaufarbeitung als auch die validierte Targeted-Proteomics-Methode fanden bei der Untersuchung der Darmsegmente von 9 Spendern Anwendung, wobei jeweils Gewebe aus dem Duodenum, oberen und unteren Jejunum, Ileum sowie Colon zur Verfügung stand. Von den 13 untersuchten Enzymen wurden in allen Dünndarmabschnitten nur CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, UGT1A1, UGT1A3 und UGT2B7 nachgewiesen, deren Gehalt im Jejunum am höchsten war. Im Colon wurde auf Proteinebene keines der Metabolisierungsenzyme detektiert. Die entsprechenden Genexpressionsdaten dieser 8 Enzyme korrelieren signifikant mit den ermittelten Proteinwerten. Korrespondierend zur fehlenden Nachweisbarkeit der übrigen 5 Enzyme auf Proteinebene waren die Gene CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2E1 sowie UGT2B15 nur sehr geringfügig und CYP1A2 gar nicht exprimiert.
Zur Charakterisierung der metabolischen Aktivität der intestinalen Enzyme wurde eine weitere LC-MS/MS-basierte Methode entwickelt und validiert. Als Modellsubstrate fungierten Diclofenac (CYP2C9), Omeprazol (CYP2C19), Dextromethorphan (CYP2D6), Midazolam (CYP3A), Ezetimib (UGT1A) und Naloxon (UGT2B7). Die begrenzte Verfügbarkeit des intestinalen Gewebes sowie dessen sehr geringer mikrosomaler Proteingehalt stellten besondere Anforderungen an die Sensitivität der Methode. Ihre Eignung zur Charakterisierung der intestinalen Metabolisierungsaktivität wurde bei der Anwendung auf ein jejunales Mikrosomen-Gemisch gezeigt.
Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit generierten Daten zur Expression klinisch bedeutsamer Metabolisierungsenzyme entlang des humanen Darms tragen zu einem besseren Verständnis des intestinalen First-Pass-Metabolismus bei. Diese Kenntnisse können sowohl bei der Entwicklung neuer Arzneistoffe als auch für die Erstellung von Physiologie-basierten pharmakokinetischen Modellen (PBPK-Modellen) nützlich sein, um die orale Bioverfügbarkeit sowie das Interaktionspotential pharmakologisch aktiver Substanzen abzuschätzen.
Understanding the fundamental mechanisms in the extracellular matrix of cells (ECM) is crucial for the development of drugs and biomaterials. Therefore, an atomistic model of the extracellular matrix is a cost-efficient way to observe influences of drugs, test the effect of mutations or misfolds in proteins or study the properties of fibril or network-forming peptides.
With this thesis, a refined molecular model of an adhesion complex is proposed that contains collagen, fibronectin and the cell receptor integrin. During the building of the model, major new insights are given for each of these proteins and a powerful protein-folding algorithm is
developed.
Molybdenum dependent enzymes are involved in essential metabolic transformations in bacteria, plants, and human beings. The extreme instability of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) prevents its use as an effective treatment for patients with a Moco deficiency. Therefore, the design, develop and execute the artificial molybdenum cofactor models are essential.
In the present thesis, the asymmetric molybdopterin (mpt) model precursors with oxygen functionality and various electronic structures and their Moco model complexes mimicking the natural cofactor have been synthesized and comprehensively investigated through multi-nuclear NMR, MS, IR, resonance Raman, X-ray crystallography, UV-Vis, and electrochemical methods. Notably, the asymmetrically substituted dithiolenes in this thesis are confirmed through a significant push-pull effect, which is tuning its electronic structure. The redox behavior of Moco model complexes was investigated by temperature-dependent cyclic voltammetry. Electronic and vibrational spectral studies were investigated in detail to understand substituents effect on the electronic structure of model complexes and to elucidate roles of mpt in catalysis. Since the model complexes can be considered as structural models for the Moco dependent oxidoreductases, catalytic oxygen atom transfer (OAT) reactions in DMSO/PPh3 were investigated.
The main focus of the present thesis was achieved through the development of various synthetic routes that address phosphonate bearing dithiolene ligands, inspiring the natural mpt. Simultaneously the Minisci protocol was applied for the synthesis of new pterin ketophosphonates, taking into consideration the essential aspects of the natural molybdopterin, including the phosphate anchor group. Even though some aspects of this protocol require further optimizations, but the mentioned synthetic route has exceptional potential and flexibility.
The term diabetes mellitus comprises a group of metabolic diseases all distinguished by their main characteristic hyperglycaemia. With a steadily increasing prevalence diabetes displays an enormous burden for patients and health systems and is therefore of special interest for research. The development of the two main types of diabetes, type 1 and type 2, is closely linked to the formation of reactive species, especially hydrogen peroxide, inside different compartments of pancreatic beta cells. However, these cells are especially vulnerable towards oxidative stress mediated by hydrogen peroxide due to a low expression of antioxidative enzymes.
The main aims of the present thesis were to analyse the intracellular generation and to enable the site-specific detection of hydrogen peroxide to evaluate its role in the delicate equilibrium between redox signalling and oxidative stress under certain pathophysiological conditions, and moreover to monitor its movement through compartments and subcellular membranes of insulin-producing cells. Additionally, a new methodology for an artificial site-specific generation of hydrogen peroxide inside living cells was developed.
In acinar cells, cellular organelles like zymogene granule, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosome functions in coordinate way in order to synthesize and secrets large amounts of digestive enzyme. Dysfunction of this organelle, results into enzyme activation within acinar cell; ultimately, acute pancreatitis. While previous studies reported that mitochondrial function is disrupt but mechanism of clearance of these mitochondria remains unknown during pancreatitis. Here we reported that PINK1 and Parkin mediated pathway is activated during pancreatitis and clears dysfunctional mitochondria in-vivo. PINK1 or Parkin deficient acinar cell had energy crisis, decreased ATP production and altered acinar cell fate in-vitro. Inhibiting clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria aggravates experimental pancreatitis severity and delays regeneration/recovery of exocrine tissue after disease via PARIS-PGC-1α pathway. While an attempt to explore therapeutic target of PARIS-PGC-1α pathway by treatment of SRT1720 rescued experimental pancreatitis. Together, PINK1 and Parkin, restricts exocrine pancreatic damage in pancreatitis and accelerates tissue recovery after disease.
Using validated analytical tools and optimized sampling procedures, it was possible to detect a vast number of metabolites from the extracellular space but also from the cytosol of B. subtilis. The results indicate that the complement of the analytical methods was suitable in the monitoring of the metabolome since it allowed a great coverage of physicochemical diverse metabolites. However, a wide number of unknown metabolites/features were also detected. Although broad databases exist that can help in the annotation of metabolites, further investigation is needed in their identification. In unpredictable changing conditions, bacterial cells possess appropriate adaptation strategies for a successful bacterial growth. These rely on sensing mechanisms that globally adjust gene expression via transcription and feedback regulations. The metabolic sensing mechanisms have emerged as key roles in the nutritional information and regulation of cell cycle processes. In this work, a new quality of information regarding the metabolism and adaptation to the absence of key signal mechanisms in B. subtilis was provided. Investigations of cells lacking Pyk uncovered alterations in the import of glucose and pyruvate from the nutritional media. These results gives insights to the pyruvate homeostasis mechanism but also brought new questions concerning the regulation of the CCR. Pyruvate wasn't susceptible to the glucose dependent CCR in Δpyk. The earlier in ux of pyruvate in these cells is in accordance to the newly discovered pyruvate transport mechanism. Also, it was speculated that the lower consumption of external glucose could be a consequence of the impairment of the PTS system in the mutant cells due to the accumulation of glycolytic metabolite FBP. In future studies, insights of the PTS system mechanism should be done in these conditions, that could comprise the determination of HPr phosphorylation and the HPrK activity. This study also arose new questions that should be address, that include the higher secretion of acetoin and 2,3-butanediol, and the lower accumulation of shikimate 3-phosphate by the mutant cells. In an untargeted metabolomic analysis, a vast number of altered features were suggested to be fatty acids metabolites, precursors of phospholipids and LTA. Complementary approaches should be done for the confirmation of these metabolites and the inspection of possible alterations in the membrane structure. In the study of LTA mutants, the accumulation of PG precursors provided a hint of altered cell wall assembly. Although by uorescence microscopy no clear changes were detected, the metabolic results emphasized the previous assumption of the affected hydrolytic activity occurring in the PG. For comprehensive knowledge of the cell wall it would be important to detect and identify more metabolites of the LTA anchor using optimized cromatographic method. These results could be complemented with other omics data sets studies which would help in the elucidation of these key regulatory systems mechanisms.
Oils and fats from natural origin are sustainable sources for a broad range of economically relevant products in food, feed, fuel, oleochemical, and cosmetic industries. Thereby, a huge variety of lipids or lipid-derived products exist which distinguish themselves by their unique physical properties making them suitable for their individual applications. To obtain such functional lipids in an environmentally friendly manner, enzymes can be employed. In that context, lipases have been proven to be valuable biocatalysts in lipid modification, which are broadly applied in industry. Even though they have been implemented successfully in the dairy, baking, and detergent industries, there is an increasing demand for the expansion of their utilization. New technologies like protein engineering and the implementation of process development are employed in solving this task. Within the enzymes in lipid modification, lipases are the most applied catalysts and in this thesis their utilization was expanded successfully to the implementation of novel separation processes and the production of improved drug delivery matrices.
Central to this thesis are so-called G-quadruplex (G4) nucleic acids. These unusual structures have recently moved into the scientific limelight - mostly due to their prevalence in the human genome. Incidentally, the vast majority of G4-prone sequences is found in telomeric regions and in the promoter sequences of a large number of cancer-related genes.
Furthermore, recent studies suggest a wide applicability of these structures as therapeutic and functional agents, though the technology is still in its infancy with only a few oligonucleotides in clinical trials. Notably, G-quadruplexes are highly polymorphous, exhibiting different topologies and conformations based on sequence, solution condition and molecularity. Therefore, rational design of such structures with specific, topology-encoded functions demands a comprehensive understanding of the underlying folding parameters.
As the folding process is the result of a whole orchestra of parameters with synergistic effects, the herein proposed approach to understand the G4 structural arrangement concentrates on native G4-forming sequences with well-defined topologies. Perturbations of these structures by rational nucleotide substitutions allow for the observation of discrete effects on the folding pathway and on the resulting overall topology.
The method chosen for primary investigation in the following studies on G4 architectures was Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) as it is the most powerful tool for structure elucidation in liquids. Unique to this technique, it permits the observation of discrete species in mixtures by distinct perturbations at the atomic level as well as valuable insights into the molecular dynamics.
The included publications study the effects of site-specific bromine substitutions on native quadruplex scaffolds, thereby successfully inducing new structures. These expand the G4 structural landscape but also enhance our understanding of the driving forces in G4 folding.
The synthesis of pterin-dithiolene ligands was achieved by employing the radical nucleophilic substitution, i.e. the so-called “Minisci- Reaction”1. This protocol was used for the first time by Professor W. Pfleiderer on pterin substrates2 and proved a powerful method for the preparation of 6 acyl-pterins in course of this work. Subsequent construction of the dithiolene ring facilitates the synthesis of pterin-dithiolene ligands with completely unprotected pterin moieti.
The molybdenum cofactor is probably one of the most relevant discoveries in the recent history of pterin chemistry and biochemistry. Many efforts have been made for the preparation of compounds able to mimic the features of the Moco ligand system called "Molybdopterin". In fact, the study of MPT models enables a deeper understanding of the “mechanism of function” of this cofactor and most importantly, lays the foundation for a potential treatment for the Moco related diseases MoCOD and iSOD.
Vor dem Hintergrund des noch wenig erforschten RNA-Ladungstransfers, lag der Fokus der Arbeit auf die Etablierung eines Ladungstranfers innerhalb einer funktionellen RNA. Als Modellsystem diente dazu das HPAR2, ein FMN-abhängiges Aptazym, dessen strukturdynamische Funktionsweise noch nicht komplett verstanden ist. Dabei galt es zum einen innerhalb der funktionellen Aptamerdomäne einen Ladungstransport zu etablieren. Zum anderen musste eine geeignete Position innerhalb der Aptamerstruktur für die Einführung eines nukleophilen Linkers identifiziert und verifiziert werden, um postsynthetisch die Verknüpfung mit dem FMN zu ermöglichen. Zusätzlich wurde durch die Synthese verschiedener nukleosidischer Sonden die Anwendung spektroskopischer Methoden zur Untersuchung dynamische RNA-Funktionen ermöglicht. Dabei gelang es eine neue Strategie zur Einführung einer Spin-Sonde in eine RNA zu entwickeln. Des Weiteren gelang die Darstellung einer nukleosidischen PHIP-Sonde, die eine außergewöhnlich hohe Signalverstärkung zeigte. Um die Funktionskontrolle des Modellsystems über einen intramolekularen Elektronentransport zu ermöglichen, musste zunächst die Synthese eines dementsprechend Linker-modifizierten Adenosins erfolgen. Der Einbau dieses Linker-modifizierten Adenosins durch chemische Festphasensynthese lieferte zwei RNAs, die durch Hybridisierung mit entsprechenden Gegensträngen das FMN-Aptamer und das FMN-abhängige Modellsystem HPAR2 bilden. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit, der Vorbereitung eines Elektronentransfer-sensitiven Aptazyms, setzte die Bereitstellung eines nukleosidischen Elektronendonors voraus. Dafür erfolgte die Synthese und Charakterisierung zweier Pyren-modifizierte Uridinderivate. Die Charakterisierung beider Elektronendonoren durch optische Spektroskopie (Fluoreszenz und UV/Vis) resultierte in vielversprechenden Hinweisen, dass die Erzeugung eines Überschusselektrons nach Anregung mit Licht einer bestimmten Wellenlänge gelang. Der erfolgreiche Einbau des substituierten Pyren-Nukleosidderivates in fünf verschiedene Duplex- und sechs verschiedene Aptamerstrukturen und deren spektroskopische Charakterisierung erlaubte die Untersuchung des RNA-Ladungstransports. Der Nachweis eines Ladungstransfers gelang für beide Systeme über zwei unterschiedliche Methoden. Einerseits konnte der Ladungstransfer über Fluoreszenzspektroskopie nachgewiesen werden und andererseits gelang der Nachweis über die Degradierung des eingebauten Akzeptors. Diese Ergebnisse stellen den ersten Ladungstransfers durch eine nicht Watson-Crick gepaarte Nukleinsäurestruktur dar. Zudem ist dies die erste Demonstration eines Sequenz-abhängigen Ladungstransportes innerhalb einer RNA.
Die akute Pankreatitis ist durch eine vorzeitige intraazinäre Proteasen-Aktivierung gekennzeichnet, wobei diese im Verlauf der Erkrankung durch eine zunehmende Immunantwort mit in das Pankreas infiltrierenden Immunzellen ergänzt wird. Eine besondere Bedeutung hat die intrazelluläre Aktivierung der Serinprotease Trypsinogen, die in Abhängigkeit der lysosomalen Hydrolase Cathepsin B (CTSB) verläuft.
Wir konnten zeigen, dass verschiedene lysosomale Proteine (Cathepsin D (CTSD), Cathepsin C (CTSC)) nach pathologischem Stimulus in das sekretorische Kompartiment (Zymogengranula) umverteilt werden. Cathepsin D ist in der Lage, das Schlüsselenzym Cathepsin B zu aktivieren, indem es das Pro-Enzym zu aktivem Enzym spaltet. Der Ort dieser proteolytischen Aktivierung sind die sekretorischen Vesikel. Eine pharmakologisch induzierte Permeabilisierung der Lysosomen mit nachfolgendem Ausbleiben der Umverteilung der Enzyme in das sekretorische Kompartiment zeigte, dass die vorzeitige Zymogen-Aktivierung in der Frühphase der Pankreatitis erhalten geblieben ist und unabhängig vom Lysosom verläuft. Eine CTSB-Abhängigkeit bleibt jedoch bestehen. Ein Fehlen von CTSD in den Azinuszellen führt zu einem nur transient milderen Verlauf der akuten Pankreatitis, wie anhand von CTSDf/f/p48Cre/+ Mäusen demonstiert werden konnte, die einen Pankreas-spezifischen CTSD Knockout besitzen. Ein anhaltend milderer Verlauf der Pankreatitis fand sich in CTSD-/- Mäusen, der auf eine verminderte Sekretion pro-inflammatorischer Zytokine in Immunzellen zurückzuführen ist. Auch bei Defizienz von CTSC war der Schweregrad der akuten Pankreatitis milder, wie in CTSC-/- Mäusen experimentell demonstiert werden konnte. Ursächlich hierfür ist vor allem ein reduziertes Einwandern neutrophiler Granulozyten in das Pankreas und in die extrapankreatischen Organe (Lunge), die auf eine geringere Aktivität der Serinprotease Neutrophilen Elastase und verminderte Spaltung des Zell-Kontakt Moleküls E-Cadherin beruhen. Umgekehrt beeinflusste das Fehlen von CTSC in den Azinuszellen nicht die vorzeitige Proteasen-Aktivierung.
Unsere Arbeit unterstreicht die Bedeutung lysosomaler Enzyme in der akuten Pankreatitis und zeigt, dass diese Enzyme maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die Funktion von Immunzellen haben, die den Verlauf der Erkrankung wesentlich mitbestimmen. Unsere Arbeit zeigt außerdem, dass der primäre Ort der intrazellulären und vorzeitigen Proteasen-Aktivierung alleinig im sekretorischen Kompartiment stattfindet und nicht von einer Fusion mit dem lysosomalen Kompartiment abhängig ist.
Die Hälfte der globalen Primarproduktion wird in den Ozeanen realisiert und dabei wird ein großer Anteil des fixierten CO2 genutzt, um Algenpolysaccharide zu synthetisieren. Diese Kohlenhydrate dienen als wichtige Kohlenstoff- und Energiequelle für marine Nahrungsnetze, wobei sie von kohlenhydrataktiven Enzymen zu monomeren Zuckern umgesetzt werden. Da bisher wenig über den enzymatischen Abbau von Algenpolysacchariden in den Ozeanen bekannt ist, war es das Ziel dieser Arbeit, zu einem tieferen Verständnis dieser Prozesse beizutragen.
O-Methylierungen stellen stabile Modifikationen an Zuckern in marinen und terrestrischen Polysacchariden dar. Es wurde in Artikel I gezeigt, dass Cytochrom P450 Monooxygenasen eine wichtige Funktion in enzymatischen Abbausystemen aus marinen Bakterien für Agar haben, wobei diese Enzyme die oxidative Demethylierung von 6-O-Methyl-D-galaktose, einem Monomer aus Rotalgenpolysacchariden, katalysieren. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es sich bei der P450-Subfamilie CYP236A um die zweite beschriebene Gruppe von kohlenhydrataktiven Monooxygenasen handelt. Die charakterisierten P450s sind hochspezifisch für 6-O-Methyl-D-galaktose und akzeptieren keine typischen P450-Substrate. Um die molekularen Faktoren für den spezifischen Umsatz dieses polaren Substrates aufzuklären, wurde Proteinkristallografie genutzt (Artikel II). Die Kristallstruktur der P450 Monooxygenase aus Z. galactanivorans mit gebundenem Substratmolekül zeigt, dass sowohl Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen als auch hydrophobe Interaktionen an der Substraterkennung beteiligt sind, was zusätzlich durch ITC sowie Mutationsstudien bestätigt wurde.
Schnellwachsende Grünalgen der Gattung Ulva führen weltweit zu gefährlichen Algenblüten. Ein Hauptbestandteil der gebildeten Biomasse stellt das anionische Polysaccharid Ulvan dar. Bisher war der enzymatische Ulvanabbau kaum verstanden, was die sinnvolle Nutzung von Ulva-Biomasse erschwerte. Die detaillierte biochemische Charakterisierung einer Ulvanlyase auf F. agariphila wird in Artikel III gezeigt. Dieses Enzym katalysiert den ersten Schritt im Ulvanabbau und die biochemischen Parameter stimmen mit den Umweltbedingungen in Küstenbereichen des gemäßigten Ozeans überein, dem Habitat, aus dem dieses Bakterium isoliert wurde. Alle nachfolgenden Schritte im kompletten enzymatischen Ulvanabbau wurden aufgeklärt und sind in Artikel IV zum ersten Mal beschrieben. Insgesamt 13 Enzyme aus den Klassen der Polysaccharidlyasen, Glykosidhydrolasen sowie Sulfatasen agieren in einer komplexen Kaskade zusammen, um schlussendlich monomere Zucker aus Ulvan bereitzustellen.
Die gezeigten Identifizierungen und Charakterisierungen von neuen kohlenhydrataktiven Enzymen tragen nicht nur zu einem besseren Verständnis der Vorgänge im marinen Kohlenstoffkreislauf bei, sondern bilden zudem die Grundlage für zukünftige biotechnologische Prozesse. Eine effiziente enzymatische Depolymerisation der Algenpolysaccharide ist nötig, um Bioraffineriekonzepte basierend auf Algenkohlenhydraten zu realisieren. Dabei können über mikrobielle Fermentation Biokraftstoffe der zweiten Generation oder andere nützliche Produkte hergestellt werden.
β-chirale Amine, wie zum Beispiel Pregabalin und Baclofen, sind Verbindungen von großem Interesse insbesondere für die pharmazeutische Industrie. Biokatalytische Herstellungsverfahren, vor allem Aminierungsreaktionen, sind bisher nur geringfügig untersucht worden und werden nach aktuellem Wissenstand bis auf die Synthese von Niraparib noch nicht in großtechnischem Maßstab eingesetzt. Wünschenswert ist die Etablierung einer Synthese, welche (S)-Pregabalin bzw. (R)-Baclofen in hohen Ausbeuten liefert, da diese beiden Enantiomere jeweils die höhere biologische Wirksamkeit aufweisen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Synthese von Pregabalin und Baclofen als Modellverbindungen für β-chirale Amine mit Hilfe einer selektiven Amintransaminase oder Amindehydrogenase.
Zunächst wurde erfolgreich mit Hilfe der Gaschromatographie bzw. HPLC jeweils eine chirale Analytik für die beiden Reaktionsprodukte sowie die Baclofen-Derivate etabliert, die stabil reproduzierbar und auch zur Quantifizierung geeignet war. Auch für 3-(4-Chlorphenyl)-4-oxo-buttersäure-t-butylester konnte eine GC-Methode entwickelt werden, die Aufschluss über die Konzentration und den Enantiomerenüberschuss gab.
Die vier zur Verfügung gestellten Amindehydrogenasen konnten erfolgreich exprimiert und mittels IMAC-Methode gereinigt werden. Trotz geringer Aktivitäten in einem photometrischen NADH-Assay konnte jedoch keine Produktbildung nachgewiesen werden. Eine Kollektion von ca. 150 Amintransaminasen wurde bezüglich der Desaminierung von Pregabalin und Baclofen mittels Dünnschichtchromatographie untersucht. In Richtung der Aminierung wurde ein photometrischer Acetophenon-Assay verwendet. Dabei wurden für Pregabalin sechs und für Baclofen 17 potenzielle Kandidaten ermittelt. Besonders vielversprechend war die Variante 3FCR 59W 87L 231A 382M 429A (3FCR_5M), welche 3-(4-Chlorphenyl)-4-oxo-buttersäure-t-butylester als Substrat akzeptierte. Nach der Ermittlung eines geeigneten Aminodonors und Optimierung der Reaktionsbedingungen konnten Umsätze bis zu 90% bei 99%ee (R) mit IMAC-gereinigter 3FCR_5M erzielt werden.
Um Kosten für ein späteres großtechnisches Verfahren einzusparen, sollte die Reaktion ebenfalls für den Einsatz von Zellextrakt optimiert werden. Dabei wurde beobachtet, dass geringere Enantiomerenüberschüsse erzielt wurden als mit dem gereinigten Enzym und der Substratverbrauch höher als die Produktbildung war. Als mögliche Ursachen wurden der Umsatz des Substrats durch ein E. coli eigenes Enzym, beispielsweise eine Aldehydreduktase oder Aldehyddehydrogenase, sowie eine Beeinflussung der Enantioselektivität durch die veränderte chemische Umgebung oder den selektiven Entzug des gewünschten Substrat-Enantiomers durch eine selektive Nebenreaktion hypothetisiert. Dieses Phänomen konnte durch eine vorgeschaltete Reinigung mittels fraktionierender Ammoniumsulfat-Fällung jedoch erfolgreich umgangen werden. Mit dieser Methode konnten vergleichbar hohe Umsätze und Enantiomerenüberschüsse wie mit dem IMAC-gereinigten Enzym erreicht werden.
Bei ersten Vorversuchen zum Up-Scaling der Reaktion wurde festgestellt, dass eine höhere Substratkonzentration nicht einen proportional höheren Umsatz zur Folge hatte, jedoch konnte der Umsatz durch eine versetzte Zugabe der Enzymlösung gesteigert werden, sodass ein Prozess mit diesem Biokatalysator in seiner aktuellen Form eine kontinuierliche Zugabe erfordern würde. Praktikabel wäre einer Verminderung der Substrat-Inhibierung und Erhöhung der Enzymstabilität durch weiteres Protein-Engineering. Auch zur Produktion von 3FCR_5M im größeren Maßstab wurden Experimente vorgenommen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine vielversprechende Expression im Bioreaktor bei einer kontinuierlichen Temperatur von 30°C und einer Expressionsdauer von sieben Stunden. Nach einigen Optimierungsschritten konnte im Bioreaktor die zwanzigfache volumetrische Aktivität im Vergleich zur Expression im Schüttelkolben erzeugt werden.
Zusammenfassend ist zu sagen, dass in der vorliegenden Arbeit, trotz weiterem Optimierungsbedarf, eine sehr gute Grundlage für die Transaminase-vermittelte Synthese von (R)-Baclofen geschaffen wurde. In zukünftigen Arbeiten sollte die Optimierung der Reaktion in großem Maßstab im Fokus stehen.
Amine transaminases are versatile biocatalysts for the production of pharmaceutically and agrochemically relevant chiral amines. They represent an environmentally benign alternative to waste intensive transition metal catalysed synthesis strategies, especially because of their high stereoselectivity and robustness. Therefore, they have been frequently used in the (chemo)enzymatic synthesis of amines and/or became attractive targets for enzyme engineering especially in the last decade, mainly in order to enlarge their substrate scope. Certainly, one of the most notable examples of amine transaminase engineering is the
manufacturing of the anti-diabetic drug Sitagliptin in large scale after several rounds of protein engineering. Thereby, the target amine was produced in asymmetric synthesis mode which is the most convenient and favored route to a target chiral amine, starting from the corresponding ketone. The choice of the amine donor is highly relevant for reaction design in terms of economical and thermodynamic considerations. For instance, the use of alanine as the natural amine donor is one of the most common strategies for the amination of target ketones but needs the involvement of auxiliary enzymes to shift the reaction equilibrium towards product formation. In fact, isopropylamine is probably one of the most favored donor molecules since it is cheap and achiral but it is supposed to be accepted only by a limited number of amine transaminases.
This thesis focusses on the optimization and application of amine transaminases for asymmetric synthesis reactions en route to novel target chiral amines using isopropylamine as the preferred amine donor.
The present work is a cumulative dissertation that covers the research work of the author at the Department of Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Chelyabinsk State University. It contains a short description of the study and a set of attached publications in peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings.
The phase and chemical equilibria in binary systems Me – Si
(where Me is the 4th-period transition metal) as well as Mo – Si, Mn – Ge and Fe – Ge at low temperatures were considered. The solid solubility of silicon in vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt and copper and that of germanium in manganese and iron was estimated.
The phase equilibria in Me – Si – O, Mo – Si – O, Mn – Ge – O and Fe – Ge – O ternary systems at standard conditions were considered from a thermodynamic viewpoint. The atmospheric corrosion of transition metals silicides and manganese and iron germanides was discussed.
The chemical and electrochemical equilibria in Me – Si – H2O, Mo – Si – H2O, Mn – Ge – H2O and Fe – Ge – H2O systems were considered from a thermodynamic viewpoint. Pourbaix diagrams for some 4th-period transition metals and molybdenum, as well as for silicon, were revised. The potential – pH diagrams for Me – Si – H2O, Mo – Si – H2O, Mn – Ge – H2O and Fe – Ge – H2O systems were plotted in the first time. The corrosion-electrochemical behaviour of transition metals silicides and manganese and iron germanides in aqueous media was discussed.
The potential – pH diagrams for some siliceous brasses and bronzes (which are multicomponent alloys containing both transition metals and silicon) were plotted, and the corrosion of these alloys in aqueous media was discussed.
Method of estimation of corrosion-electrochemical behaviour of multicomponent alloys, which takes into account both thermodynamic and kinetic data and is based on mutual construction of equilibrium and polarisation potential – pH diagrams, was described. Its usage was illustrated in the example of the structural steel 20KT.
Unter Verwendung von rekombinanten Schweineleberesterasen wurden zwei Chemoenzymatische Prozesse sukkzessive etabliert, optmiert und im Maßstab vergößert. Es wurden zwei chirale Synthesebausteine beispielhaft hergestellt und charakterisiert.
Die Arbeit gibt einen Einblick in die Prozessoptimierung von chemoenzymatischen Syntheserouten unter ökonomischen Aspekten.
In an aerobic environment the occurrence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a common phenomenon. The diverse roles of ROS in cellular function and in diseases make them a target of interest in many research areas. Substances capable of directly or indirectly reducing the (harmful) effects of ROS are referred to as “antioxidants”. However, the term is applied miscellaneously in the chemical and the biological context to describe different attributes of a substance. In this work the potential of an electrochemical assay to detect different ROS in-vitro was explored. The method was optimized to investigate the radical scavenging activities (antioxidant potential) of trolox and different plant compounds (ascorbic acid, caffeic acid, epigallocatechin gallate, ferulic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, rutin, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract) in-vitro. The obtained data was compared to established antioxidant in-vitro assays. Further, the impact of the plant substances on cellular parameters was evaluated with the electrochemical assay and established cell assays.
The optimization of the electrochemical assay allowed the reproducible detection of ROS. The sensor electrode proved differently sensitive towards individual ROS species. The highest sensitivity was recorded for hydroxyl radicals while superoxide and hydrogen peroxide had little impact on the sensor. Extracellular ROS concentrations could be detected from cell lines releasing elevated ROS into the extracellular space. The antioxidant activity of the investigated plant substances could be demonstrated with all in-vitro assays applied. However, the absolute as well as the relative activity of the individual substances varied depending on the experimental parameters of the assays (pH, radical species, phase, detection method).
The plant compounds modified redox related intracellular parameters in different cell lines. However, a direct correlation between intracellular and extracellular effects of the plant compounds could not be established.
The work demonstrates the feasibility to use the electrochemical assay to sense ROS as well as to evaluate the radical scavenging activity of molecules. The in-vitro antioxidant activities demonstrated for the individual plant substances are not reliable to predict the cellular effects of the molecules.
In the 1940s cytochrome P450 monooxygenases have been discovered and have been the focus of many studies ever since. Although they catalyze very interesting reactions that might find applications in the production of fine chemicals or pharmaceuticals, their low activity and stability often reduces their economic value. Both properties, the activity and the stability, are influenced by the uncoupling of the catalytic cycle.
In this PhD thesis, an assay for the screening of activity and uncoupling of cytochrome P450 enzymes was successfully developed. After finding optimal conditions for the assay, concerning pH and enzyme concentration, the uncoupling of cytochrome P450 BM3 and five mutants (F87Y, R47L, Y51F, A82L and T268A) was investigated. With the results obtained, a comparison of data from literature was possible and revealed similarities. Additionally, through negative controls, the reliability of the assay could be further demonstrated. Although other methods have been described for the detection of hydrogen peroxide formation, the combination of NADPH consumption measurement and hydrogen peroxide formation in parallel was new and represents a very good basis for a pre-screening of large mutant libraries, followed by closer investigation of selected variants.
For the investigation of the activity of the CYP11A1 system, consisting of CYP11A1 and Adx and AdR as redox partner system, the expression and purification for all three proteins was investigated first. For the protein CYP11A1 and Adx, good expression levels were achieved, whereas for AdR the protein concentration obtained was very low. The purification of all three proteins was partially accomplished but left room for improvement. Therefore, in the Master thesis of Christopher Grimm, the pH and temperature stability of all three proteins was further investigated in order to improve conditions used for ion exchange chromatography and to investigate possible conditions for in vitro biocatalysis. As unfortunately even with further investigation of the expression of AdR, no improvement was achieved, a whole-cell system was further investigated. Here, the product formation could be increased 8-fold in comparison to the published data, from 0.27% conversion to 2.2% conversion over 24 h by using a different detergent for substrate solubilization, which might have led to a better substrate supply to the enzyme.
Due to the low activity and stability, a different P450 system, the CYP17A1 enzyme, was subsequently investigated, first by in vitro biocatalysis with the human CYP17A1 expressed in E. coli. Therefore, a suitable redox partner system needed to be found for efficient electron supply of the enzyme. In in vitro biocatalysis, in combination with the Pdx/PdR system of P. putida the CYP17A1 enzyme showed the highest conversion with 91% after 24 h. To investigate the activity of the enzyme further, all active site residues in 4 Å proximity to the bound substrate were exchanged with alanine. After expression of the variants, almost no correctly folded protein was obtained for the variants. Also, after investigating different buffers to possibly enhance the stability, no improvements were achieved. Therefore, a whole-cell approach with the bovine enzyme was chosen in order to investigate the activity of the alanine variants. Here the importance of positions N202, R239, G297, E305, and T306A, described in literature to be important for catalytic activity, was confirmed. Most importantly, three positions that alter the regioselectivity of the enzyme were identified. The reaction of the V483A mutant was therefore also further investigated by preparative biocatalysis. Afterwards the new product was separated by preparative HPLC and identified as 16α- hydroxyprogesterone as confirmed by NMR spectroscopy analysis.
In the last part of the thesis, another screening approach for possible high-throughput screening was investigated. In contrast to the other screening approach, here the investigation of the substrate conversion and the hydrogen peroxide formation were optimized for application in droplets. After finding that DCFH-DA was not sensitive enough towards hydrogen peroxide, the AmplifluTM Red probe was used. As both fluorescent products were found to stay in the aqueous phase above pH 7.4, the conditions investigated for the AmplifluTM Red assay were applied and only NADPH to substrate ratio was investigated by using an uncoupling variant, an active variant from literature and the cytochrome P450 BM3 wild-type enzyme. After finding a good ratio, the five variants used for the investigation of the AmplifluTM Red assay were investigated in the same concentration later on found in the droplets (1 cell per 4 pL), and one variant showed improved product formation compared to wild-type. This finding clearly shows the applicability of the assay for high-throughput screening in droplets.
G-Quadruplexe (G4) sind alternative Sekundärstrukturen, die von Guanosin-reichen DNA- oder RNA-Sequenzen ausgebildet werden können. In den letzten Jahren rückten diese tetrameren Konstrukte aufgrund ihres erst kürzlichen Nachweises in lebenden Humanzellen und ihrem Vorkommen in bestimmten funktionellen Genombereichen wie den Promotorregionen von Protoonkogenen oder den Telomeren zunehmend in den Fokus der Nukleinsäureforschung. Insbesondere ihre starke Korrelation mit Krebs macht Quadruplexstrukturen als Zielmotiv für die Entwicklung antikanzerogener Wirkstoffe höchst interessant. Um jedoch niedermolekulare Moleküle für therapeutische Zwecke nutzen zu können, muss zunächst auf molekularer Ebene ein grundlegendes Verständnis für die Ligand-Quadruplex-Interaktion geschaffen und anhand dieser Informationen Optimierungsmöglichkeiten für G4-bindende Liganden ergründet werden.
Ziel dieser Dissertation war die ausführliche Analyse der Bindung biologisch aktiver, Phenyl-substituierter Indolochinoline an Quadruplexstrukturen mittels diverser spektroskopischer und kalorimetrischer Methoden. Um simultan den Einfluss verschiedener Ligandstrukturelemente auf die G4-Anbindung für ein zukünftiges, rationales Wirkstoffdesign zu erforschen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zunächst unterschiedlich modifizierte Indolochinolinderivate synthetisch hergestellt. In ersten spektroskopischen Experimenten sollten diese Moleküle anschließend nicht nur auf ihre generelle Interaktion mit verschiedenen G4-Topologien hin untersucht, sondern auch die Selektivität, die Bindungsaffinität und der Interaktionsmodus der Liganden ermittelt werden. Besonders die Indolochinoline mit basischen Seitenketten und einer N5-Methylierung zeigten eine hohe Affinität und Präferenz gegenüber parallelen Quadruplexstrukturen. Um detailliertere Informationen über diese Ligand-DNA-Wechselwirkung zu erhalten, erfolgten umfassende thermodynamische Bindungsstudien mittels isothermaler Titrationskalorimetrie. Anhand dieser Daten erfolgte eine Separation der Freien Bindungsenthalpie, die in dieser Form erstmalig für ein G4-bindendes Molekül beschrieben wurde. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Anbindung der Phenyl-substituierten Indolochinoline nicht nur durch hydrophobe Effekte, sondern vor allem durch spezifische molekulare Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Ligand und der Quadruplex vorangetrieben wird.
Molybdopterin spielt in der Natur eine wesentliche Rolle, da es gebunden an Molybdän den Molybdän-Cofaktor bildet, der einer Reihe verschiedener Enzyme als katalytisches Zentrum dient. Der Molybdän-Cofaktor kann zwar aus dem Protein freigesetzt werden, erweist sich dann aber als instabil. Trotz langjähriger Bemühungen konnten der Molybdän-Cofaktor und seine biologischen Vorstufen bisher nicht auf chemischem Wege synthetisiert werden. Daher konnten die bisher gewonnenen Kenntnisse über diese Verbindung nicht anhand von Untersuchungen an dem freien Cofaktor gewonnen werden. Um den Cofaktor in seiner Chemie zu verstehen, beschäftigt sich diese Arbeit mit der chemischen Synthese von Modellverbindungen, die die Aufgaben des natürlichen Cofaktors nachbilden können. Um den Einfluss der verschiedenen Struktureinheiten auf die Stabilität oder die katalytische Aktivität zu verstehen und so ein tieferes Verständnis über Molybdopterin und mögliche Struktur-/Funktionsbeziehungen des natürlichen Cofaktors zu entwickeln, werden einzelne Strukturabschnitte untersucht. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit war der Fokus das Verständnis der Chemie des Pyrazin-Pyran-Dithiolen-Strukturabschnittes und nach Möglichkeit die Entwicklung alternativer Modellverbindungen, die in der Lage sind Sauerstoff-Transport-Reaktionen zu katalysieren und/oder mit dem Apoenzym verbunden werden können. Im besten Falle kann so eine Modellverbindung als Behandlungsmöglichkeit der Molybdän-Cofaktor-Defizienz eingesetzt werden, bei Bindung mit dem Apoenzym für iSOD (isolierte Sulfitoxidase-Defizienz) oder bei Nichtbindung für MoCo-Defizienz Typ B. Für die Synthese der Pyrazin-Pyran-Dithiolen-Liganden sollten bereits literaturbekannte Syntheserouten insbesondere von Garner modifiziert und optimiert werden. Vergleichsweise sollten auch Ligandensysteme mit einer CH2-Gruppe anstelle der Sauerstofffunktion des Pyrans synthetisiert werden. Des Weiteren sollten neue Synthesewege zu strukturell und elektronisch ähnlichen Verbindungen entwickelt werden. Die so gewonnenen Ligandensysteme sollten anschließend mit vorzugsweise Molybdän, aber auch Wolfram komplexiert werden.
Humanity is constantly confronted with the emergence and reemergence of infectious diseases. Many of them produce large or devastating epidemics, like AIDS (HIV) and Ebola. Others have been long neglected, yet pose immediate threats to global public health as evidences the abrupt emergence of Zika virus in South America and its association with microcephaly in babies. The examples illustrate, that many of these diseases are provoked by RNA viruses. One of the first steps in understanding and eliminating those threats is the development of sensitive and rapid diagnostic methods. A general and relatively rapid method is the direct detection and examination of the agent’s genome. However, the nature of (re)emerging RNA viruses poses a series of very specific problems for the design of such methods. Therefore, a systematic approach was proposed for the design of DNA-hybridization-base methods to detect and characterize RNA viruses that will have both a high sensitivity and a specificity sufficiently broad to detect, per reaction, down to a single copy of any of the possible variants of the viral genome.
Following this approach a series of assays were designed, developed or adapted and put into use for detection and characterization of important RNA viruses. One of those viruses is West Nile virus (WNV), which after its explosive introduction into USA become the most widespread flavivirus throughout the world and, consequently, many countries began an intensive monitoring. While existing assay detected predominantly the Lineage 1, in Europa Lineage 2 was expected. Two new RT-qPCR for the detection of both lineages were developed, and reportedly used by independent laboratories. Due to more than 50000 associated deaths per year, the Hepatitis E virus also received an increasing attention to elucidate novel routes of transmission. This virus (especially genotype 3) has the zoonotic potential of transmission from pigs and wild boar to humans. RT-qPCR and nested qPCR for detection and characterization of this virus as well as a methodology for subtyping were developed and the first detected case of subtype 3b in a German wild animal was documented. In addition a novel assay for flaviviruses conformed by a RT-qPCR coupled with a low density DNA microarray was developed, which enabled the identification of WNV in mosquitoes from Greece. A RT-qPCR suitable for surveillance and diagnostic of all known variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus was developed too. A causative agent of hemorrhagic infections, the Ngari virus, was detected and characterized in animal samples from Mauritania. These achievements were supported by the development of software applications for selection and visualization of primers and probes from aligned DNA sequences and for modeling of DNA hybridizations using unaligned sequences.
In conclusion a general methodology for rapid development of sensitive diagnostic methods based in DNA-hybridization technics (PCR, sequencing and microarray) was stablished and successful applications are reported.
In this work, the regioselectivity of different Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) for the conversion of selected substrates was reversed or improved by protein engineering. These studies highlight the importance of substrate positioning for the regioselectivity and that the position of the substrate can be efficiently influenced by introducing proper mutations. It was shown that the beneficial mutations for all BVMOs were partly in corresponding positions. Additionally, the sulfoxidation activity and the stability of BVMOs were targeted and improved by applying protein engineering.
The overarching goal of this work was to develop a biosensor based on functional nucleic acids. The biosensor should be modular, such that by exchange of the recognition unit, tailored biosensors could be created, allowing detecting a variety of analytes on demand. In the context of the cooperation with a company, initially, TNFalpha was chosen as an analyte. In a previous work, it was tried to build a modular aptazyme for TNFalpha that was based on four aptamers that were developed by SELEX. Here, these aptamers were investigated more closely by different methods (SPR, QCM). In the present work, it was proven beyond doubt that this attempt was not feasible. The aptamers were not able to bind the biologically active form of TNFalpha. An even more interesting finding was that a common tool to immobilize molecules to investigate their interactions with a binding partner, namely the streptavidin-biotin interaction, can strongly influence the result of the assay and causing false-positive results. Afterwards, it was decided to continue the work with a DNAzyme and modular approach was strictly refrained. It was tried to build aptazymes for TNFa or creatinine by in vitro selection, which failed. Most likely, the crucial factors were the ligands itself and the high demand on in vitro selection to select two functionalities (aptamer and catalytic activity) in parallel. This was the reason, to develop a new and a different method with streptavidin as a model analyte. The new strategy was to combine in vitro selection and rational design. The 17E-DNAzyme was chosen as catalytically active module. In preparation of the in vitro selection work, its properties were analyzed. An oligo-based inhibitor of the 17E-DNAzyme was rationally designed and its functionality was experimentally evaluated. Then, a library was designed which contained the 17E-DNAzyme, a randomized domain, and the inhibitor and its functionality was experimentally proven. The in vitro selection for the aptamer and the catalytic function were separated in two steps where the substrate strand was introduced in the second step. The knowledge about in vitro selection procedures, which was gained in the first trials with TNFalpha and creatinine was applied and could be substantially broadened. The crucial factors for the success of this process were identified. Most important steps are the amplification steps between the rounds and the in vitro selection pressure. The template concentration in the PCR has to be very low; the selection pressure has to be high. However, in fact, the exact quantity of "low" and "high" is difficult to determine exactly, it has to be individually evaluated for every amplification step, and this makes in vitro selection a method that requires a lot of experimental skills, optimization procedures, and experience. An EMSA was established and performed to qualitatively prove the affinity of the library for streptavidin in the first step of the in vitro selection method. For the second step, the in vitro selection of the catalytic function, considerable effort was done, but the in vitro selection did not succeed. Using the Biacore, the dissociation constant of the pool, which was applied in the second step of in vitro selection, was determined to be KD = 38 nM. This is very low, and by sequencing the pool it was found that the sequence variability was too low. The sequences share a cramp-like stem-loop structure, which hold the DNAzyme in an inactive conformation. This work presents valuable results for the development of biosensors based on nucleic acids, applying in vitro selection and rational design. Aptamers for streptavidin were selected. The library, which was used for this in vitro selection was structurally constrained. This obviously, represented an exceptionally good starting point for the in vitro selection. In this work, a lot of information about the development of in vitro selection systems was gained. Important work was done on establishing a click chemistry-based immobilization strategy. This work is going to fundamentally facilitate a new in vitro selection approach based on this immobilization strategy.
Chiral amines represent high-value fine chemicals serving as key intermediate products in pharmaceutical, chemical and agrochemical industries. In the past decades, application of amine transaminases (ATAs) for stereoselective amination of prochiral ketones emerged to an environmentally benign and economically attractive alternative to transition metal-catalyzed asymmetric synthesis to afford optically pure amines at industrial scale. However, the restricted substrate scope of wild-type transaminases prohibited the conversion of particularly sterically demanding substrates, making protein engineering indispensable. The following thesis covers elaboration of a novel assay for transaminases (Article I) and identification and development of transaminase variants in order to achieve biocatalytic preparation of a set of pharmaceutically relevant model amines, ideally in optically pure form for both stereoisomers, preferentially using asymmetric synthesis and most preferably using isopropylamine as cost-efficient amine donor co-substrate (Article II-IV). The aforementioned target amines and the corresponding precursor ketones (see Scheme 4.1) were conceived and provided by the company F. Hoffmann-La Roche to attain suitable biocatalysts for a variety of potential intermediates for active pharmaceutical ingredients. Protein engineering of the transaminase scaffolds investigated in this thesis comprised: Initial screening for suitable starting enzyme scaffolds, structure-guided rational design of these scaffolds to enable bulky planar substrate acceptance, elaboration of a sequence motif, verification of the motif and preparative-scale asymmetric synthesis reactions (Article II). For non-planar and structurally different target substrates, namely spatially bulky or bi-cyclic bridged substrates, the transaminase variants were specifically refined and a different evolutionary route had to be pursued (Article III and Article IV). These results (Article II) represent not only the first successful endeavor to engineer a PLP-fold type I amine transaminase (commonly denoted as (S)-selective) for the conversion of highly sterically demanding substrates, but also generally expanded the scope of available fold type I amine transaminases by enzymes having a novel and exceptionally broad substrate spectrum. Aside from structure-guided rational protein engineering, as well non-rational methods, such as site-specific saturation mutagenesis or directed evolution, were applied for protein-engineering. In order to do so for all of the target compounds, a novel high-throughput solid phase activity assay for transaminases that was actually developed during the master thesis, was refined and published (Article I). In the context of this thesis, the same assay principle was as well adapted for quantification of specific activities in liquid phase (Article III). A comparison of different methodologies for developing agar plate assays and a detailed step by step protocol of our transaminase assay are illustrated in a book chapter.
In this work, the discovery, expression and characterization of new eukaryotic Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) from yeasts has been shown. A rational design of one of these enzymes led to the identification of key residues to alter the sulfoxidation activity of this group of enzymes. Additionally, in another rational design approach, the cofactor specificity of the BVMO cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus could be substantially altered to accept the much cheaper and therefore industrially more relevant cofactor NADH.
Investigation on the primary and secondary metabolism of marine and terrestrial endosymbionts
(2017)
Ph.D. thesis describes the metabolism of marine fungus and isolation of natural product for human use in part I and also describes earthworm endosymbiosis mechanism in part II. From the marine fungus project, three new producers have been identified for the previously reported bioactive secondary metabolites. And, from the Earthworm endosymbiosis project, the role of primary metabolites in the host fitness has been partially studied. the results outcome will be a partial contribution to microbial symbiosis.
The four stranded G-quadruplexes are important secondary structures of nucleic acids formed by guanosine-rich sequences. Besides the application as scaffold for technological applications, they are involved in many cellular processes such as gene regulation, replication, or maintenance of chromosomal ends. Characteristically, a large diversity of quadruplex structures is observed, whereas the correlation between sequence and structure is still not fully understood. In this thesis, the effects of modified nucleotides on G-quadruplexes were analyzed using NMR-spectroscopy to gain insight into driving forces determining the folding process. Contrary to DNA quadruplexes, the folding landscape of RNA structures is mostly restricted to parallel topologies. Therefore, ribose moieties were introduced into DNA sequences to isolate the effect of the additional hydroxy group. In this way, sequential CHO hydrogen bonds between the 2′-OH and the H8 of the 3′-neighbored anti conformer were identified and subsequently detected within RNA structures. In a second part, 2′-fluoro-2′-deoxyribose was incorporated at positions with guanosine in unfavored syn orientation. Instead of a changed global fold, the direction of the hydrogen bond network in the modified tetrad was reversed. This first example of tetrad inversion within a unimolecular quadruplex yielded a unique (3+1)-hybrid topology with only homopolar stacking interactions. Additionally, the effect was reproduced for another sequence and high-resolution structures were determined. Unfavored interactions between the 2′-fluorine and the narrow groove of the quadruplex were identified as a reason for different sugar conformations and consequent structural rearrangements.
Das Forschungsgebiet des RNA-Engineerings beschäftigt sich u.a. mit der Entwicklung von Ribozymen mit neuen oder verbesserten Eigenschaften. Es umfasst nicht nur den Entwurf neuer Ribozyme mittels in-vitro-Selektion oder rationalem Design, sondern auch die Validierung der entworfenen Systeme mit Hilfe von Aktivitätstests oder strukturellen Untersuchungen. In dieser Arbeit wurden mit Hilfe der Methoden des RNA-Engineerings verschiedene Hairpinribozymvarianten generiert werden, die eine ortsspezifische RNA-Sequenzveränderung innerhalb geeigneter RNA-Substrate erlauben. Dabei war sowohl die potenzielle Anwendung dieser Ribozyme in der molekularen Medizin als auch deren Rolle als RNA-Rekombinasen in einer möglichen RNA-Welt von Interesse. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag hierbei in der Entwicklung eines Reportersystems, welches den direkten Nachweis einer twinribozymvermittelten Reparaturreaktion in Zellen erlaubt. Das Reportersystem basiert auf der Reparatur einer Vierbasendeletion innerhalb der EGFP-mRNA. Durch rationales Design wurde ein Twinribozym generiert, das die Reparatur mit einer Reparaturproduktausbeute von 32 % katalysiert. Das erfolgreich entwickelte Reportersystem steht somit für Experimente unter Zellkulturbedingungen zur Verfügung und eröffnet außerdem den Weg, die Twinribozymstrategie in der Zelle zu adaptieren und zu optimieren, um sie später intrazellulär für gewünschte Ziel-RNAs anwenden zu können. Ausgehend von der den Twinribozymen eigenen Aktivität zur Katalyse eines RNA-Fragmentaustauschs wurde darüber hinaus im Kontext der RNA-Welt-Hypothese ein Hairpinribozym entwickelt, welches durch Rekombination zweier nicht-funktioneller RNA-Substrate ein funktionelles RNA-Molekül generiert. Hierbei führte die hairpinribozymvermittelte Spaltung zweier geeigneter Substrate, Rekombination der Spaltfragmente und Ligation der neuangeordneten Fragmente mit einer Rekombinationsproduktausbeute von 76% zur Generierung eines funktionsfähigen Hammerheadribozyms.
In this thesis, rates and extend as well as the ecological implications of electron exchange reactions that involve redox-active moieties in organic matter (OM) were explored. The research builds on earlier findings that confirmed that OM may act as terminal electron acceptor (TEA) for electrons released in microbial respiration. This property was associated with quinone moieties that are ubiquitously found in OM from terrestrial and aquatic environments and that may undergo reversible reduction to the respective hydroquinone. Earlier methodological advances allowed for a rapid, direct and precise quantification of the electron accepting and donating properties of quinones in dissolved OM (DOM) by mediated electrochemical analysis. In this work, the previously established mediated electrochemical analysis was adapted and used in the characterization of redox properties of particulate natural samples that contain redox active iron and organic matter ("geochemical phases"). For the first time, direct measurements confirmed that microorganisms transferred electrons (e) from microbial respiration to the organic and inorganic electron acceptors in the particulate phase. Particulate OM in the sediments was found to provide a capacity to accept or donate e of 650 µmol e/gC. An incubation experiment resolved the spatiotemporal dynamics of organic and inorganic TEA species (i.e., nitrate, sulfate, Fe- and Mn oxyhydroxides) in sediments upon changes in oxygen availability and hence redox conditions. Oxygen is consumed when the reduced species are oxidized and, by this means, re-generate their electron-accepting capacity. The use of mediated electrochemical analysis allowed for the quantification of the redox state of the geochemical phases during their reduction and re-oxidation. The electron fluxes initiated by the oxic re generation of the TEAs nitrate, sulfate, Fe(III), Mn(IV) and quinoid moieties in OM were therefore directly monitored instead of modeled from the species’ distribution profiles in interstitial waters. The cyclic reduction and re-oxidation of redox species exposed to oxygen fluctuations was suspected to be a critical component of many aquatic ecosystems. In stratified lakes, extended sediment volumes are exposed to oxygen only upon lake overturn. Lake oxygen budgets are therefore influenced by benthic redox processes. The combined field and laboratory study showed that lake overturn seasonally introduces a finite amount of oxygen to the hypolimnion and that about 50% of the subsequent sediment oxygen consumption is exclusively associated with the re-generation of TEA species. These species previously formed in the sediment when organic matter was microbially decomposed during anaerobia. While lake overturn can completely mix epi- and hypolimnetic waters, small-scaled dynamics in temperature and oxygen availability may confine discrete parts of the water column with oscillations in physicochemical conditions. In the studied lake, a transient thermocline cyclically introduces oxygen to hypoxic hyplimnetic waters close to the pelagic redox interface. In the lake, organic TEAs may represent an important component of the total pelagic electron acceptor capacity. Due to the rapid and reversible redox reactions of DOM, reduced organic TEAs are re-generated upon dislocation to oxic parts of the water column. Results show that diurnal fluctuations of oxycline depth shape a micro-environment selecting for microbial species that are released from TEA limitations by OM in oxidized state. Pelagic microbial communities subjected to the same amount of OM in different oxidation states differed by more than 50% after one day. This work substantiates earlier findings that suggested that OM may be an important TEA species in many aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. OM reduction in microbial respiration was shown to directly affect critical system parameters as bacterial activity, oxygen budgets and aquatic biodiversity. Both the microbial reduction and subsequent abiotic oxidation of OM are sufficiently fast for relevant interaction with oxycline fluctuation on different timescales. Given that organic TEAs are cyclically regenerated, a significant share of ecosystem respiration could be linked to OM reduction. This thesis demonstrated the new and important role electron exchange reactions in OM-rich environments play and explored the mechanism of this previously neglected part of lake functioning. As of today, linking the chemistry of aquatic turnover processes with the microbiological and physical conditions at redox interfaces remains challenging. In conclusions, by providing several cases from aquatic environments, this thesis contributes to the mechanistic understanding of OM reduction in microbial respiration. The results prompt for further research regarding the competitive inhibition of other respiration pathways, including the reductive production of the potent greenhouse gas methane.
This thesis is about the establishment and the application of novel methods and tools that are re-lated to the most widely used enzyme class: hydrolases. It covers all fields from the identification to the application of these valuable enzymes with particular focus on lactonases, acylases and proteases. The activity assay introduced in Article I substantially extends the method toolbox for studies on lactonases and acylases that interfere with the bacterial cell-cell communication system. Article II describes a fully automatized robotic platform that represents the next-level tool for the high-throughput enzyme screening in the microtiter plate format. It was used, for instance, for the screening for improved porcine aminoacylase I variants. Diverse aspects of the protease-mediated hydrolysis of non-resistant proteins for the purification of resistant target proteins are highlighted in Article III.
The synthesis of valuable chemicals via traditional chemical methods can be often outperformed by the use of enzymes because of their excellent chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity in aqueous solvents at ambient temperatures. On the other hand, enzymes often suffer from several limitations that hamper their industrial application. Protein engineering is commonly applied to overcome these limitations although the generation and the validation of mutants is often a laborious process that may not lead to the desired results within reasonable time frames. This thesis focuses on engineering the enantioselectivity and the substrate scope of industrially relevant enzymes, such as esterases and transaminases. Semi-rational protein engineering was employed to identify improved variants for the synthesis of valuable chemicals ensuring a reduced screening effort. Compared to previous works, 3DM’s applicability was extended to the study of correlated mutations and proved effective in the acceleration of the comprehension and in the mutation of these enzymatic scaffolds. Semi-rational approaches require an extensive amount of information such as protein structures, reaction mechanisms, previous mutational experiments reported in literature and a considerable amount of amino acid sequences from similar proteins to analyze amino acid distributions and correlated mutations. Here, we have exploited 3DM as a tool that can combine all this wealth of information: 3DM is a convenient solution to retrieve and integrate information simplifying decision making in the planning of a semi-rational mutant library since in 3DM’s multiple sequence alignments (MSA) is summarized Nature’s screening process for alternative variants. Furthermore, naturally evolving enzymes often require mutations at more than one position for the acquisition of a new property. Such mutations generate patterns that are recognized by the 3DM algorithm, which creates networks that can be investigated to design strategies that aim to improve the property of interest. Finally, these correlated mutations are connected to the mutations described in publications covered in the PubMed database, thus helping to investigate the role certain positions might play in the network. Article I shows that it is possible to improve the enantioselectivity of an esterase towards a highly symmetrical substrate while drastically reducing the screening effort. This was achieved through the creation of libraries that limit the variants to those identified in the 3DM alignment. Article II shows that networks of correlated mutations are composed of positions that may cluster around a function. These functions can be investigated because 3DM connects the positions in the network to their related publications. In this article, a mutant of the esterase PFE-I from Pseudomonas fluorescens was generated having increased enantioselectivity in the hydrolysis of important target compounds. Article III suggests that the in silico modelling software YASARA, combined with the use of the 3DM database, can further reduce the screening effort: it was possible to identify a hot-spot because both the 3DM database and YASARA docking studies, indicated its importance. This led to a further improved enantioselectivity of the enzyme variant identified in Article II. Article IV shows how MSA may be used to get structural insights into the catalytic properties of enzymes with documented activity. The study of the patterns observed in a large subfamily alignment allowed the definition of the structural determinants important for the substrate recognition in amine transaminases. Article V and VI apply the knowledge acquired for the improvement of the substrate scope in the amine transaminase from Vibrio fluvialis.
Interactions between bacteria and the human body are manifold and happen constantly. Most parts of the skin and gastrointestinal tract, the saliva, the oral mucosa, the conjunctiva and the vaginal mucosa are colonized with a multitude of bacterial species forming the human microbiota. Strikingly, the estimated amount of bacterial cells outnumbers the human body by 10 to 1. However, most of these bacteria colonize the human body without positive or negative effects and are regarded as commensals. Staphylococcus aureus a Gram positive bacterium is such a commensal bacterium of 25 % to 30 % of the world population. It is also an opportunistic pathogen and is able to cause infections in the lung, skin and heart and to induce sepsis. Its pathogenicity is mainly facilitated by the secretion of a broad spectrum of virulence factors which interact with the host. Some are distracting the immune system, others are targeting the host cell membrane or degrade macromolecular structures of the host in order to provide nutrients. Furthermore S. aureus is able to invade the host cell and to survive and replicate in the host cell cytosol or other compartments. The Gram negative proteobacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei is an environmental bacterium but still has the ability to enter the human body via body orifices or skin wounds. In a very efficient way it penetrates the host cell, replicates intracellular and the uses host structures to spread from cell to cell thereby causing the disease melioidosis often with fatal outcomes. Since the natural habitats of B. pseudomallei are wet soils, the change to the environment in the human body is drastic and requires a high degree of flexibility of the bacterium. Environmental stress conditions such as temperature, pH, nutrient limitation or presence of antibiotics induce a switch of colony morphology which is a special characteristic of this bacterium. Since it is assumed, that changes in colony morphology are connected to adaptive processes to the environmental changes, these morphology switches might also be important during infection. The host organism and the host cell on the other side try to kill and remove the bacterial threat by activating the immune system and cellular defence mechanisms. This includes generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, production of antimicrobial peptides and cellular processes such as phagocytosis, autophagy, apoptosis and activation of the immune response. The actions and reactions on both, the pathogen side and the host side, are summarized as host-pathogen interactions. In the field of functional genomics, methods were developed to understand various levels of host-pathogen interactions. The holistic analysis of the mRNA (the transcriptome) or translated proteins (the proteome) were already very useful tools to describe important cellular processes on the host and the pathogen site. The level of metabolites with regard to host-pathogen interactions however, has been neglected so far. In this dissertation the metabolic composition in the intracellular and extracellular space of the host and the pathogen was analyzed. For this matter biochemical analytical tools were used such as 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and chromatographic methods (GC and HPLC) coupled to mass spectrometry. The combination of these methods allows a broad coverage of physicochemical diverse metabolites. In accordance to the above mentioned biological levels like mRNA and proteins, the sum of all metabolites is referred as the metabolome. Consequently to transcriptomics and proteomics the analysis of the metabolome is referred as metabolomics. To gain insights into the infection relevant metabolome of the host-pathogen relationship between S. aureus and human lung cells several approaches were developed. First the distribution of the recently identified bacillithiol in different S. aureus strains was investigated with regard to its role during the infection. For that matter a HPLC-methodology was used with fluorescence based detection of labelled low molecular weight thiols (article I: Distribution and infection-related functions of bacillithiol in Staphylococcus aureus). After that the next aim was to reveal the effect of S. aureus on the host cell metabolism. To reduce the complexity of effects on the host cells an artificial model was chosen in a first approach. The lung cells were treated with the staphylococcal virulence factor alpha-hemolysin, a pore forming toxin and a holistic metabolomics approach was performed (article II: Staphylococcus aureus Alpha-Toxin Mediates General and Cell Type-Specific Changes in Metabolite Concentrations of Immortalized Human Airway Epithelial Cells). Using this approach, a protocol for cell culture metabolomics was established and first changes in the host cell metabolome that could be caused by S. aureus were described. However, this only describes specific changes caused by one single virulence factor and does not necessarily describes the reality during a S. aureus infection. Therefore in a next approach, an infection model using a human lung epithelial cell line and the S. aureus strain USA300 was established and used for metabolome analysis. Furthermore a combination of inhibitor treatment and metabolic labelling was used to clarify the metabolic activity in the host cell after exposure to S. aureus (article III: Metabolic features of a human airway epithelial cell line infected with Staphylococcus aureus revealed by a metabolomics approach). Finally this thesis deals with the host-pathogen interaction of B. pseudomallei and its host with a focus on the role of the switch in colony morphology in basic metabolism. Various morphotypes of two strains were generated by nutrient limitation and their uptake of nutrients was monitored. Furthermore the morphotypes were used in in vitro and in vivo infections and subsequently isolated out of the cell line and mice respectively. After isolation, the colony morphology was determined and again the nutrient uptake profile was monitored (article IV: Burkholderia pseudomallei morphotypes show a synchronized metabolic pattern after acute infection). The information provided by this thesis adds a new complexity to the knowledge about the host-pathogen interactions of S. aureus and B. pseudomallei and their hosts. It furthermore lays the groundwork for future studies, which will deal with these and other bacterial host-pathogen interactions in order to understand the interdependencies of infection and metabolism.
Cascade reactions are not only of interest to chemists and biotechnologists, but also to life in general, because every metabolic reaction resembles a cascade reaction. This principle of substrate/intermediate channeling was only adapted by scientists. That way especially one-pot reactions became very attractive as for this no isolation of intermediates is necessary. Furthermore, unstable or toxic intermediates are only produced in low amounts and directly transformed in situ. In this PhD thesis two previously established cascade reactions were subject of further optimization. In the first part, a cascade reaction established in a DFG-funded project (Bo1862/6-1)in cooperation with the Vienna Technical University (Austria) for the production of chiral lactones was further optimized and extended. Therefore, on the one hand the genes encoding the needed enzymes were cloned for co-expression into a single plasmid in different arrangements to be expressed in pseudo-operon mode, with the aim to lower the metabolic burden of the cascade host cell. One out of the welve created constructs showed a reasonable activity of 15.3 ± 1.2 U · gCDW-1. On the other hand, this cascade reaction was aimed to be extended by the use of a hydroxylating enzyme to enable the use of limonene as renewable and chiral precursor for the proposed production of chiral polymers. Therefore, the feasibility of cytochrome P450-monooxygenases was studied. These turned out to be not applicable due to their bad regioselectivity for the hydroxylation of limonene or due to the difficulties of activity reconstitution. As alternative system for an initial hydroxylation step the use of a Rhodococcus equi strain, which was isolated from Cellulosimicrobium cellulans EB-8-4 and which is capable of very regioselective limonene-hydroxylation, was investigated. Therefore, the dioxygenase cluster responsible for the desired reaction was identified and especially the recombinant expression in a suitable host (Pseudomonas putida S12) was further studied. The results from these experiments revealed that the recombinant expression needs to be further optimized to enable the use of the recombinant dioxygenase in combination with the other enzymes for cascade reactions. The third part of this PhD thesis dealt with the immobilization of an established cascade reaction for the synthesis of poly-[caprolactone] precursors. Therefore, the use of a rotating bed reactor (RBR) was investigated. Preliminary studies using single enzymes involved in the desired cascade reaction demonstrated the general feasibility of this reactor concept. Especially the reusability of the catalysts was highly improved, because the catalytic particles were protected very effectively from mechanical forces within the voids of the reactor. For further work-flow optimization the immobilization was transformed into an in situ process by the application of a gas-shear device, which leads to decreased capsule size and thereby to increased mass transfer inside the particles. The developed methods were applied for encapsulation of the cells containing the enzymes needed for the reaction. After additional improvement of the reaction parameters a conversion of 93% (based on substrate depletion) was reached using catalysts produced by the established encapsulation procedure. In summary, the described cascade reactions were successfully optimized by either co-expression, extension applying a dioxygenase or immobilization. Furthermore, the general feasibility of an RBR was demonstrated.
In dieser Arbeit wurden drei neue Imin-Reduktasen (IREDs) identifiziert und biochemisch charakterisiert. Bei einem dieser Enzyme war eine Kristallstruktur bereits gelöst, jedoch keine Funktionalität beschrieben. Beim Untersuchen des Substratspektrums wurde in dieser Arbeit erstmals festgestellt, dass neben zyklischen Iminen und Aminen auch azyklische Amine Substrate der IREDs sein können. Außerdem können IREDs Ketone oder Aldehyde als Substrate verwenden indem diese mit Ammoniak oder primären Aminen reduktiv aminiert werden. Es wurde die Kristallisation von den von uns neu entdeckten IREDs, sowie von 15 weiteren neuen IREDs untersucht. Für drei Enzyme konnten gut streuende Kristalle erhalten werden, wobei es zum ersten Mal für IREDs gelang, Kristalle bei der NADP+ Co-Kristallisation zu erhalten. Zwei dieser Enzyme tragen ungewöhnliche Reste im aktiven Zentrum (Glutamat und Asparagin). Bisher wurden meist Aspartat für (R)-selektive beziehungsweise Tyrosin für (S)-selektive IREDs beschrieben. Eine Ausnahme bildet die von uns charakterisierte IRED Ppu, welche ein Histidin einen Turn upstream (in der Sequenz weiter in Richtung C-Terminus) in der IRED trägt und im phylogenetischen Stammbaum eine dritte Gruppe von IREDs bildet. Neben der erstmalig berichteten Immobilisierung von IREDs, konnten wir mit Hilfe von rationalem Design eine Variante der Sgf3587 IRED erstellen, welche eine 3-fach erhöhte Akzeptanz von NADH zeigt. Da alle bisher beschriebenen IREDs NADPH stark präferieren, bildet die K40A-Variante der Sgf3587 IRED eine Alternative die den kostengünstigeren Cofaktor NADH verwenden kann. Eine andere von uns untersuchte Methode zur Kostenreduzierung ist die Verwendung eines Substrat-gekoppelten Ansatzes zur Cofaktor-Regenerierung. Hierbei wird ein zweites achirales sekundäres Amin eingesetzt, welches durch Oxidation des Substrats den Cofaktor reduziert, welcher dann für die Imin-Reduktion zur Verfügung steht. Die bisher beschriebenen Beispiele für die reduktive Aminerung zeigten eher geringe Umsätze. Sie wurden nur für drei Enzyme dargestellt. Mit Hilfe unseres Kooperationspartners konnten wir über 30 weitere Beispiele für Enzyme zeigen, welche die reduktive Aminierung durchführen können. Weiterhin konnten wir präparative Beispiele mit 1% (m/v) Substrat-Konzentration zeigen, wobei es gelang gute Umsätze und Reinheiten zu erlangen. Mit Hilfe der reduktiven Aminierung konnte außerdem die prinzipielle analytische Darstellung von Rasagilin, ein Alzheimer Medikament, gezeigt werden. Diese ist sehr vielversprechend und nach weiterer Optimierung wäre eine industrielle Anwendung möglich.
Enzymatic evolution and the corresponding relationship to substrate scope and catalytic promiscuity were targeted in this thesis. As enzyme examples, pig liver esterase (PLE), oleate hydratases and linoleate isomerases, as well as epoxide hydrolases (EH) and haloalkane dehalogenases (HLD) were used. The substrate scope and the enantiopreference of PLE was analyzed by molecular modeling and substrate docking, since different enantiomeric excesses were detected for the conversion of malonate diethyl esters, depending on the PLE isoenzyme. Additionally, fatty acid converting enzymes with high identity were found and analyzed to comprehend the switch of both activities. Furthermore, the evolutionary connection between EH and HLD was investigated by interconversion studies to implement an HLD acitivity in an EH. By directed evolution and rational design, both possibilities of protein engineering were realized. Finally, a new methodology for targeted, continuous in vivo evolution was established by a temperature-dependent mutagenesis frequency.
An interesting subclass of the SLs are Cers, the simplest SLs. Cers are assigned a special role within SLs because of their involvement in many cellular and biophysical processes.In literature Cers are describe to modulate many events in signaling including apoptosis. Besides its role as second messenger and therefore the involvement in many signal cascades, Cers are also known to be essential in physical modifications and structural alternations of membranes. Such regulatory functions on membrane formation are e.g. domain formation with other lipids (i.g. SM and Chol), phase separation with sterols (Chol), vesicular trafficking, fusion, membrane curvature fluidity and thickness and the induction of membrane leakiness. In contrast to phospholipids, Cers can move from one side of the membrane leaflet to the other, due to their strong hydrophobicity. This movement is called flip-flop or as transbilayer movement and is controversially discussed. Consequently, no exact value has been reported about the flip-flop property of Cers, which probably plays an important role during the transmission of an extra cellular signal through the membrane.In order to probe the biophysical properties of ceramides, a synthetic access to 1-thioceramides (1-SHCer) analogues with different N-acyl chain length has been developed in this study. With 1SHCer the flip-flop was investigated on pre-formed liposomes and the data indicated a very rapid flip-flop of Cers with a half time t1/2 <10s in raft- and non-raft like membrane models. Furthermore, the acyl chain length exhibited no measurable impact on the speed of the flip-flop. Utilizing the same probes the importance of hydrogen bond donor and acceptor properties of Cers upon interaction with sphingomyelin in the presence or absence of cholesterol (Chol) has been probed. Performed fluorescent quenching experiments (P.Slotte) proposed the following relative preference in interaction with pSM:pSM:DAGs > pSM:Cer > pSM:Chol > pSM: 1-pCerSH.Most strikingly, the importance of the 1-OH H-bond acceptor functionality to replace Chol around and above the melting temperature of pSM has been demonstrated. Recently, an unusual subclass of SLs, named 1-deoxysphingoids have come to the foreground, as biomarker for metabolic disorders. 1-doxSA is physiologically generated (10-40nM) due to substrate promiscuity of SPT and shown to be elevated in patients with metabolic disorders. In this study an organic synthetic access to fluorescent DSB derivatives was established, featuring a fluorescent moiety at the lipid tail, such as FITC 26. Comprehensive fluorescent studies of 26 revealed an unusual subcellular distribution. Exogenous 1-doxSA analogues, such as FB1 and 1-doxSA-FITC, enter via specific entry points. During the next few hours these lipids accumulate within the cytosol prior to N-acylation by CerS. Upon N-acylation, the newly formed 1-doxdhCer and its analogues insert into the ER membrane.The fluorescent probe and most likely FB1 analogues accumulate within the late endosomal and lysosomal system, probably via a direct connection with the ER. Analysis of the lipid metabolism of unlabeled 1-doxSA and FB1 revealed a strikingly similar behavior, pointing towards a common pharmacological effect. Complete consumption of TG within 24h in epithelia cells combined with GO analysis of 1-doxSA interacting lipids indicates significant modulation of fatty acid degradation, pointing towards regulation of the energy metabolism. This is in good agreement with the observed induction of autophagy. Together, this rapid and similar metabolic change of both 1-doxSA and FB1, points toward direct 1-doxSA head-group related lipid-protein interaction and less toward the influence of FB1 on CerS activity. This work suggests the biological significance of 1-doxSA as a primary nutrient sensor to maintain nutrient homeostasis and its role in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases.
Der Replikationszyklus der Herpesviren ist sehr komplex und im Detail unzureichend verstanden. Die Funktionen und Eigenschaften einiger viraler Proteine sind bisher kaum charakterisiert. Folglich gibt es wenige Strukturmodelle dieser Proteine, wodurch beispielsweise eine rationale Medikamentenentwicklung kaum möglich war. Die Zielstellung dieser Arbeit war, neun dieser Proteine (pUL4, -7, -11, -16, -21, -26, -26.5, -32 und -33) aus dem pseudorabies virus (PrV) zu charakterisieren und nach Möglichkeit deren Struktur aufzuklären. Hierzu wurden die zur Verfügung gestellten Gensequenzen in geeignete bakterielle Expressionsvektoren umkloniert und in E. coli exprimiert. Lösliche Proteine wurden gereinigt und anschließend Kristallisationsexperimenten unterzogen, während unlösliche Proteine zum Teil auf ihre Renaturierbarkeit getestet wurden. Die Strukturen des kristallisierten N-terminalen Teils von pUL26 (Assemblin) wurden mittels Röntgenkristallographie aufgeklärt. Außerdem wurden alle Proteine in silico auf Signalsequenzen, Phosphorylierungen und Sequenzmuster untersucht. Von der N-terminalen Serinproteasedomäne (Assemblin) von pUL26 wurden drei Strukturen durch Röntgenkristallographie bestimmt: eine native dimere, eine inhibierte dimere, sowie eine native monomere Struktur. Letztere ist das erste bekannte Strukturmodell der monomeren Form eines Assemblins. In Verbindung mit den dimeren Strukturen konnte experimentell bestätigt werden, dass die Aktivierung der Assembline über die Verschiebung eines loop bei der Dimerisierung erfolgt. Die Umlagerung dieses loop basiert darauf, dass sich der in der monomeren Form teilweise flexible Dimerisierungsbereich durch die Dimerisierung etwas verändert und eine weitestgehend starre Konformation einnimmt. Die Helix α8 wird etwas verkürzt und die Helix α7 etwas verlängert und begradigt, wodurch sich der Oxyanionenloch-Loop vom Dimerisierungsbereich entfernt und ein ausgedehntes Wasserstoffbrückenbindungsnetzwerk aufbaut. In dieser Konformation stabilisiert der loop das Oxyanionenloch, wodurch die Protease aktiviert wird. Weiterhin wurde durch small-angle X-ray scattering bestätigt, dass der Dimerisierungsgrad von der Assemblin- und Mg²+;-Ionenkonzentration abhängig ist. Diese Informationen zur Dimerisierung des PrV-Assemblins können dazu beitragen, rationale Medikamentenentwicklung zu betreiben. Daraus resultierende Wirkstoffe können die Dimerisierung und somit die Aktivierung dieses Schlüsselproteins verhindern. Durch die hohe Ähnlichkeit der Assembline in anderen Herpesviren, kann die nun bekannte monomere Struktur des PrV-Assemblins als Modell für die monomere Struktur anderer, zum Teil humanpathogener Herpesviren genutzt werden. Demzufolge könnte dieses Modell auch die Entwicklung von Medikamenten beispielsweise gegen das Epstein-Barr virus oder das herpes simplex virus 1 ermöglichen. Es stellte sich zudem heraus, dass die bisher für das PrV-pUL26 bzw. -pUL26.5 vorhergesagte zweite Assemblinschnittstelle (M-site) vermutlich nicht korrekt ist. Es wurde eine andere M-site vorgeschlagen, welche ebenfalls infrage kommt. Eine Charakterisierung in vitro war bei fünf der neun zu untersuchenden Proteine möglich. Die anderen vier Proteine (pUL7, -16, -21 und -32) konnten aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht erfolgreich exprimiert werden. Die Proteine pUL4, pUL26.5 und pUL33 wurden unlöslich exprimiert, wobei pUL33 renaturiert werden konnte. Der Membrananker pUL11 und die N-terminale Serinproteasedomäne von pUL26 konnten löslich exprimiert werden. Untersuchungen in silico ergaben, dass der Membrananker pUL11 aus dem pseudorabies virus wahrscheinlich ein nukleäres Exportsignal trägt, was bisher nicht bekannt war. Es ist zudem wahrscheinlich, dass pUL11 selbst keine definierte Struktur hat, da es mit 63 Aminosäuren ein sehr kleines Protein ist und über Sequenzmuster mit anderen Proteinen interagiert.
Diese Arbeit widmet sich der funktionellen und strukturellen Untersuchung von SCO3201, einem Protein aus der Klasse der TetR-Repressoren, dessen Struktur bisher unbekannt war und das eine geringe sequenzielle Ähnlichkeit zu anderen Mitgliedern seiner Familie besitzt. SCO3201 wurde als Repressorprotein identifiziert, das durch Überexpression sowohl die Antibiotikaproduktion, als auch die morphologische Differenzierung von Streptomyces coelicolor unterdrückt. In früheren Arbeiten wurde gezeigt, dass SCO3201 an mindestens 16 verschiedene Promotor-Sequenzen binden kann. Das Protein konnte in E. coli exprimiert und anschließend isoliert werden. Wegen des Fehlens geeigneter Strukturmodelle gelang eine Strukturlösung mittels Molekularem Ersatz nach erfolgreicher Kristallisation zunächst nicht. Mittels Single-Wavelength-Anomalous-Dispersion-Methode konnte die Struktur des teilweise induzierten Proteins jedoch aufgeklärt werden. Zudem wurde eine Apo-Form des Proteins kristallisiert und ebenfalls strukturell aufgeklärt. Dies erlaubte die Lokalisation der Ligandenbindungstasche und ließ Rückschlüsse auf die Domänenbewegungen zu, die durch den Prozess der Induktion ausgelöst werden. Daneben wurde mittels Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung die Struktur von SCO3201 in Lösung untersucht, um eventuelle Kristallisationsartefakte auszuschließen. Durch den Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) wurde außerdem die Interaktion zwischen dem Regulator SCO3201 zu seinen Operatoren untersucht.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Synthese von Fettsäureestern aus Pflanzenölen mit Methanol bzw. Ethanol in Gegenwart von Wasser durch die Lipase CAL-A zu optimieren, wobei insbesondere die Bildung von freien Fettsäuren minimiert werden sollte. Zunächst wurde ein Hochdurchsatztest zur Bestimmung der Acyltransferaseaktivität der CAL-A etabliert, welcher auf der Abnahme des Alkoholgehalts in Umesterungsreaktionen basiert. Dabei zeigte sich eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Umsätzen, die mit GC und dem Oxidase-Assay ermittelt wurden, wobei die Umsätze nicht zu gering sein sollten da sonst größere Schwankungen im Oxidase-Assay möglich sind. Durch das rationale Design anhand der gelösten Struktur der CAL-A konnten vier Mutagenesepositionen identifiziert werden: Thr118, Asp122, Thr221 und Glu370. Durch den Austausch der Aminosäurereste an diesen Positionen gegen hydrophobere Aminosäuren wurden 28 CAL-A Varianten generiert. Diese wurden für eine initiales, qualitatives Screening eingesetzt, indem drei CAL-A Varianten eine ähnliche bzw. erhöhte Esterbildung im Vergleich zum Wildtyp zu haben schienen. Die drei Varianten Thr118Ile, Asp122Leu und Thr221Ala wurden daraufhin für weitere Untersuchungen in P. pastoris im Bioreaktor hergestellt und in Biokatalysen verwendet. Eine erhöhte Esterbildung für die Varianten Thr118Ile und Thr221Ala ließ sich jedoch nicht bestätigen, allerdings zeigte sich, dass die CAL-A Variante Asp122Leu deutlich weniger freie Säure bildete als der CAL-A WT. In der anschließenden Charakterisierung von CAL-A Asp122Leu zeigte sich, dass diese Variante wie CAL-A WT auch thermostabil ist und dass beide Enzyme das gleiche pH- und Temperaturoptimum haben. Des Weiteren wurden CAL-A WT und Asp122Leu adsorptiv auf Lewatit VP OC 1600 immobilisiert und in Biokatalysen eingesetzt, in denen CAL-A Asp122Leu erneut deutlich weniger freie Säure bildete. Darüber hinaus wurde auch der Einfluss der Reaktionsbedingungen auf die Acyltransferaseaktivität der CAL-A untersucht. Es wurden dazu Biokatalysen mit Ethanol oder Methanol durchgeführt, in denen der Wassergehalt (5% oder 10% bezogen auf die Einwaage an Öl) und die Reaktionstemperatur (30°C, 40°C oder 50°C) variiert wurden. Die Biokatalysen mit Methanol zeigten dabei generell einen hohen Umsatz zwischen 85-95%, während die Biokatalysen mit Ethanol nur zu geringeren Umsätzen führten (55-85%). Allerdings zeigte sich in einem Langzeitstabilitätstest mit einer Biokatalysedauer von 97 h auch, dass Methanol das verwendete CAL-A Immobilisat stärker inaktiviert als Ethanol. Ebenso musste bei einem Wassergehalt von nur 5% die Methanolzugabe schrittweise erfolgen, um eine Inaktivierung des CAL-A Immobilisats zu verhindern. Somit konnte eine Optimierung der CAL A katalysierten Umesterungsreaktionen sowohl durch das Protein-Engineering des Biokatalysators als auch durch die Anpassung der Prozessbedingngen erreicht werden. Dabei wurden Erkenntnisse gewonnen, die auch zur Beurteilung der industriellen Anwendbarkeit eines solchen Prozesses beitragen können.
Das Interesse an Amin-Transaminasen stieg in den letzten Jahren stark an. Hierbei wurde der Fokus vor allem auf die Aufklärung der Strukturen der Amin-Transaminasen, aber auch auf ihre Anwendung in der Synthese von immer komplexeren Aminen gelegt. In dieser Arbeit befasste ich mich mit der Strukturaufklärung der (R)-selektiven Amin-Transaminase aus Aspergillus fumigatus und mit der Synthese von diastereomerenreinen 1 Amino-3-Methylcyclohexan. Es gelang die (R)-selektive Amin-Transaminase aus Aspergillus fumigatus zu kristallisieren und ihre Struktur mit einer Auflösung von 1,27 Å zu lösen. Der bis dato postulierte Aufbau des aktiven Zentrums von (R)-selektiven ATAs wurde bestätigt. Weiterhin wurde die duale Substraterkennung dieser (R)-ATA untersucht. Dieses erfolgte durch das Soaken mit dem Inhibitor Gabaculin und durch Mutagenesestudien. Hierbei wurde das Arginin 126 identifiziert, welches zusammen mit einem Histidin und einem Tyrosin, für die Koordinierung der Carboxylgruppe von Alanin bzw. Pyruvat in der großen Bindungstasche des aktiven Zentrums verantwortlich ist. Durch diese Erkenntnisse konnte das Verständnis über (R)-selektive Amin-Transaminasen erweitert werden und bietet nun eine gute Grundlage für zukünftige Optimierungen und Anwendungen dieser Enzyme in der Herstellung von Aminen. Zur Synthese von diastereomerenreinem 1-Amino-3-Methylcyclohexan wurde die (S)-selektive Amin-Transaminase aus Vibrio fluvialis (VibFlu) verwendet. Während hohe Enantioselektivitäten für andere Substrate bekannt waren, musste die Amin-Transaminase zunächst mit Hilfe der 3DM-Datenbank für die selektive Transaminierung von 3-Methylcyclohexanon optimiert werden. Eine Kopplung der generierten Mutanten VibFlu Leu56Ile und VibFlu Leu56Val mit verschiedenen Enoatreduktasen führte zur erfolgreichen Synthese von drei der möglichen vier Diastereomeren mit hohen Reinheiten von bis zu 97 %de und guten Umsätzen bis zu 99 %. Somit konnte die erfolgreiche selektive Synthese eines zyklischen Amins mit mehr als einem Stereozentrum durch eine Enzymkaskade gezeigt werden. Dies demonstriert die Möglichkeiten von Kaskadenreaktionen mit Amin-Transaminasen und Enoatreduktasen zur Synthese von komplexen diastereomerenreinen Aminen.
This thesis investigates the biocatalytic synthesis of amines and amino alcohols. The applicability and economic feasibility of biocatalysis for chiral amine synthesis is reviewed and the findings were compared to established chemical processes using relevant process parameters (TON, TOF and STY). This review clearly showcases the potential of biocatalysis for the synthesis of chiral amines and provides a valuable guide for synthetic chemists who want to benefit from these new opportunities. Next, biocatalysis is applied for the synthesis of an amino alcohol with two stereocentres: A novel route for the synthesis of all four stereoisomers of 4-amino-1-phenylpentane-2-ol is presented. Enzymes were applied to install both stereocentres successively, which allowed the selective synthesis with high yields and optical purities. A small scale preparative asymmetric transamination yielded one amino alcohol stereoisomer selectively. The approach presented in this thesis provides a valuable option for the synthesis of this compound class as it is highly selective, step efficient and circumvents the need for protecting groups as well as transition-metal catalysis. The substrate scope of an (S)-selective amine transaminase (ATA) was altered in order to expand the applicability for amino alcohol synthesis. Protein engineering was conducted to enlarge the small binding pocket. Small scale preparative synthesis of the 1,2-amino alcohol (R)-phenylglycinol exemplifies the applicability of the evolved variants for the asymmetric synthesis of this compound. The designed variants expand the collection of ATAs that are suitable for the synthesis of amino alcohols with bulkier substituents. To deepen the understanding of ATAs further, a class III TA family wide analysis (which includes (S)-selective ATAs) is presented. After comparing the active site architectures and performing literature research amino acids were identified that correlate with the reaction- and substrate specificity of the enzymes within this family. This information is compiled in a sequence-function matrix, which allows the prediction of the main activity of biochemically uncharacterised enzymes from their sequence. These insights provide a better understanding of the activity determining residues in (S)-ATAs and class III TAs in general.
Neben verschiedenen gesundheitsfördernden Eigenschaften hat das Flavonoid Phloretin eine süßkraftverstärkende Wirkung. Es ist nicht nur in der Pharma- und Kosmetikindustrie, sondern auch als Aromastoff für die Lebensmittelproduktion von Interesse. Bislang gab es kein vielversprechendes, biotechnologisches System zur Herstellung von Phloretin. Die Extraktion aus Pflanzen führt aufgrund niedriger und schwankender Konzentrationen zu einer schlechten Verfügbarkeit. Chemisch synthetisiertes Phloretin hingegen kann aufgrund der „Europäischen Aromenverordnung“ nicht als „natürlicher Aromastoff“ deklariert werden. Daher ist Phloretin als „natürlicher Aromastoff“ relativ teuer und für die Aromenindustrie kaum nutzbar. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, einen effizienten Weg zur biotechnologischen Produktion von Phloretin zu finden. Als Substrat sollte bevorzugt Naringenin eingesetzt werden. Obwohl ähnliche Reaktionswege in der Literatur beschrieben wurden, konnte mit ausgewählten filamentösen Pilzen in Ganzzellbiokatalysen keine Phloretinbildung beobachtet werden. Es gibt jedoch auch Bakterien, die in der Lage sind, die Zielreaktion auszuführen. Da es sich hierbei ausschließlich um obligate Anaerobier handelt, eignen sich diese Stämme kaum für die biotechnologische Produktion von Phloretin. Außerdem erfolgt in diesen Bakterien die Zielreaktion als Teil des Naringeninabbaus, das entstehende Phloretin wird abgebaut. Über die Zielreaktion im anaeroben Bakterium Eubacterium ramulus lagen bereits Informationen aus anderen Forschungsarbeiten vor, darunter auch ein Sequenzfragment vom N-Terminus der Chalconisomerase (CHI). Die CHI katalysiert die Isomerisierung von Naringenin zu Naringeninchalcon. Aus der Literatur ging hervor, dass E. ramulus die Zielreaktion von Naringenin über Naringeninchalcon zum Phloretin durchführen kann, aber dass außer der CHI ein weiteres Enzym beteiligt ist. Das genetische Potential von E. ramulus sollte genutzt werden, um einen rekombinanten Mikroorganismus zu generieren. Nach der Sequenzierung des Genoms von E. ramulus konnte die N-terminale Sequenz in der vorliegenden Arbeit genutzt werden, um in silico das Gen der CHI zu identifizieren. Da vermutet wurde, dass für die Reduktion von Naringeninchalcon zu Phloretin eine Enoatreduktase (ERED) verantwortlich ist, wurde über eine BLAST-Analyse ein konserviertes Motiv für Enoatreduktasen ermittelt, mit dem im Genom von E. ramulus das Gen einer ERED in silico identifiziert wurde. Die Gene wurden anschließend in E. coli kloniert. Für die CHI konnte eine sehr gute Überexpression und enzymatische Aktivität in zellfreien Biokatalysen nachgewiesen werden. Der Aktivitätsnachweis ermöglichte auch die Aufreinigung der CHI aus dem Proteinrohextrakt. In der Diplomarbeit von M. Thomsen wurde die Aufreinigung optimiert. Der Aufreinigungsprozess beinhaltete eine Anionenaustauschchromatographie, hydrophobe Interaktionschromatographie und Gelfiltration und führte zu einer sehr hohen Reinheit der CHI. Das aufgereinigte Enzym wurde anschließend biochemisch charakterisiert. Außerdem wurden mit dem rekombinanten Stamm (mit Genen für CHI und ERED) Versuche im Ganzzellsystem mit Naringenin durchgeführt. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die Reaktion zum Zielprodukt Phloretin empfindlich gegenüber Sauerstoff ist. Unter anaerober Atmosphäre konnte in diesem System eine höhere Phloretinbildung beobachtet werden. Da die CHI in vorherigen Untersuchungen keine Sensitivität gegenüber Sauerstoff gezeigt hatte, wurden in der Diplomarbeit von C. Peters Expression und Aktivität der ERED unter diesem Aspekt näher untersucht. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Expression der ERED unter anaeroben Bedingungen erfolgen sollte, das Enzym ist jedoch auch unter Anwesenheit von Sauerstoff aktiv. Die in der Literatur beschriebenen Ansätze zur Entwicklung von biotechnologischen Verfahren zur Phloretinproduktion basieren vor allem auf dem Einsatz pflanzlicher Gene und führten bisher nur zu geringen Produktkonzentrationen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es gelungen, ein neues System zur biotechnologischen Produktion von Phloretin zu entwickeln, mit dem eine höhere Ausbeute erzielt werden kann. Basierend auf den neu identifizierten Genen aus E. ramulus, die erfolgreich in E. coli exprimiert wurden, wird das Problem der rekombinanten Expression eukaryotischer Gene in Prokaryoten umgangen. Im Vergleich zu E. ramulus ist E. coli in der Biotechnologie bereits etabliert und relativ unempfindlich gegenüber Sauerstoff. Außerdem findet der Phloretinabbau, wie er in E. ramulus und in verwandten Bakterien ablaufen würde, in E. coli nicht statt. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass es für die Weiterentwicklung der industriellen Biotechnologie vorteilhaft ist, das enorme Potential des bakteriellen Stoffwechsels durch Gentechnik nutzbar zu machen. Durch diese Strategie wird „nachhaltige Biokatalyse auf neuen Wegen“ in der Flavonoidbiotechnologie ermöglicht.
In this thesis an artificial enzyme cascade consisting of an ADH from Lactobacillus kefir, a CHMO from Acinetobacter sp. NCIMB 9871 and lipase A from Candida antarctica has been investigated for the biocatalytic synthesis of the bulk chemical ε-caprolactone as well as several derivatives for their direct utilization as polymer building blocks. Due to major limitations, which hamper such a biocatalytic route, the first addressed demand in this work was the improvement of the stability of the CHMO. By structure-guided engineering, distinctively improved variants concerning the resistance against oxidation as well as temperature stability without compromising the catalytic activity were successfully created. Due to the incomplete knowledge of the mechanisms that lead to thermal and/or oxidative inactivation of enzymes, this study illustrates that the selection of mutations for increased protein stability is still hard to predict. Thus, these results can serve as a basis for further stability studies on this enzyme class to give better insights into the underlying mechanisms, which determine the stability of an enzyme. Such a highly stabilized biocatalyst will pave the way for the successful use of flavin-dependent enzymes for industrial applications. A further aim of this thesis was dedicated to the second major hurdle en route to polyester precursors represented by the product inhibition and enzyme deactivation caused by ε-caprolactone, particularly at higher concentrations. To overcome this limitation, we developed an elegant solution in which the ε-caprolactone produced by the one-pot two-step enzymatic method is directly subjected to ring-opening polymerization using the unique lipase A from Candida antarctica. Applying this enzyme cascade in a whole cell biocatalysis in combination with an improved cofactor regeneration approach, the problem of product inhibition problem was efficiently solved leading to the formation of oligo-ε-caprolactone at more than 20 g/L when starting from 200 mM cyclohexanol. By a process development approach through solvent engineering it was found that biotransformations proceed much faster in an isooctane-containing biphasic solvent system when using free enzymes. Finally, the improved enzyme cascade was applied for the synthesis of chiral substrates and provided access to functionalized chiral compounds in high yields (up to >99%) and optical purities (up to >99%ee). By subsequent enzymatic enantioselective ring-opening of the enantiopure monomers, oligomeric lactones were successfully synthesized, which can be directly serve as building blocks for the polymer industry.
Der gesamte Zellmetabolismus besteht aus einem effektiven System an Enzymkaskaden, um das Leben zu ermöglichen. Hier werden Stoffe ohne Abtrennung oder Aufarbeitung über verschiedene Intermediate selektiv zum Produkt umgesetzt. Die Ersparnis an Zeit, Kosten und Abfall durch den Wegfall von Reinigungen der Zwischenprodukte und der direkte Umsatz von toxischen oder instabilen Intermediaten zum Produkt machen Kaskadenreaktionen zu einem aktuellen und interessanten Anwendungsbereich der Biotechnologie. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit konnte erfolgreich eine in vivo Enzymkaskade aus drei Oxidoreduktasen etabliert, untersucht und mit Fusionsproteinen verbessert werden. Zur Etablierung der in vivo Enzymkaskade aus Alkoholdehydrogenase, Enoatreduktase und Baeyer-Villiger-Monooxygenase im Rahmen eines DFG-Projekts (Bo1862/6-1) in Zusammenarbeit mit der Technischen Universität Wien wurde zunächst nach den geeigneten Enzyme gesucht. Mit einer Alkoholdehydrogenase aus Laktobacillus kefir und einer Alkoholdehydrogenase aus Rhodococcus ruber konnte eine Oxidation von chiralen Cyclohexenol-Derivaten und Carveolen zu den entsprechenden prochiralen Ketonen erfolgen. Im Rahmen der Suche nach geeigneten Enzymen für die Kaskade wurde von drei neuen Enoatreduktasen aus Pseudomonas putida ATCC 17453 das Substratspektrum untersucht. Die xenobiotische Reduktase A (XenA), die xenobiotische Reduktase B (XenB) und die N-Ethylmaleimid-Reduktase (NemA) akzeptierten sowohl aliphatische als auch cyclische Ketone und Aldehyde. Sehr gute Umsätze konnten mit Imiden und Carvonen nachgewiesen werden. Besonders die XenA und XenB zeigten mit über 99 % Enantiomerenüberschuss in der Bildung von Dihydrocarvonen exzellente Stereoselektivitäten. In der Enzymkaskade setzten dann die XenB oder das Old yellow enzyme (OYEI) die α,β-ungesättigen Ketone selektiv zu den chiralen Ketonen um. Diese wurde dann von der Cyclohexanon-monooxygenase (CHMO) aus Acinetobacter species in die gewünschten chirale Laktone umgesetzt. Nach erfolgreichen Klonierungen konnten alle vier Enzymkombinationen der Enzymkaskade löslich und aktiv in einem E. coli-Stamm kultiviert werden. Mit der Kombination verschiedener nicht-natürlich verbundener Biokatalysatoren konnten in vivo Cyclohexenol und einfach Methyl-substituierte Cyclohexenol-Derivate selektiv zu chiralen Laktonen umgesetzt werden. Wir konnten durch Auswahlmöglichkeiten zwischen verschiedenen Alkoholdehydrogenasen und Enoat-reduktasen modular agieren und so zum Beispiel innerhalb von 20 Stunden die Reaktion von 4 Methyl-2-cyclohexenol zu 100 % in das optisch reine Lakton in E. coli katalysieren. Auch die für die Polymerindustrie interessanten Dihydrochalconlaktone konnten mit sehr guten Umsätzen und mit über 99 %ee hergestellt werden. Nach der erfolgreichen Etablierung der Enzymkaskade wurde die Umsatzgeschwindigkeit mit Hilfe von Fusionsproteinen noch einmal gesteigert. Dafür wurde die Auswirkung von verschiedenen Linkern und die Abfolge der Enzymdomänen im Fusionsprotein aus XenB-Domäne und CHMO-Domäne untersucht. Mit dem Fusionsproteine CHMO_G_XenB konnte nach einer Stabilisierung der CHMO-Domäne ein sehr guter Biokatalysator hergestellt werden. Anwendungen in der in vivo Enzymkaskade zeigten schnellere Umsätze für Cyclohexenol und Carveol. Ein aktives Fusionsprotein aus Alkoholdehydrogenase, XenB und CHMO konnte nicht etabliert werden, da beide Alkoholdehydrogenasen aus der Enzymkaskade bei der Fusionierung inaktiviert wurden. Auch wenn kein aktives Fusionsprotein aus drei verschiedenen Enzymdomänen hergestellt werden konnte, ist mit der erstmaligen Fusion einer Enoatreduktase und einer Baeyer-Villiger-Monooxygenase die neue in vivo Enzymkaskade verbessert worden. Somit konnte in dieser Doktorarbeit die erfolgreiche Anwendung von einer modularen in vivo Enzymkaskaden für die Herstellung chiraler Laktone für die Polymerchemie gezeigt werden.
Because heavy metal ions prefer to bind sulfur, inspired by molybdopterin the main goal of this work was combining dithiolene binding moieties with optically active substituents with the aim to detect/capture metal ions, which could preferably bind to the dithiolene moiety of for instance MPT. Therefore a number of dithiolene based molecules mimicking the natural immediate coordination sphere composition of Mo and W dependent oxidoreductase enzymes were synthesized and characterized by NMR, MS, IR, X-ray crystallography, UV-Vis, EPR and electrochemical methods. In order to work at the lowest possible base concentration due to potentially base sensitive substituents and reaction partners, the procedure for the de-protection of the ligand precursors and the in situ complexation reaction was first optimized in course of the work and interim we explored the surprising fact that the ring opening reaction of the 1,3- dithiol-2-one system is fully reversible and can be controlled simply by adjusting the pH-value of the solution. Then, the coordination behavior of the de-protected ligands towards different metal ions, including biologically relevant ions like Cu+, Cu2+, Fe3+ was tested. As the optically active substituents necessarily possess interesting electronic properties, a second focus of this work was to utilize the developed ligand systems for MoCo and WCo models and to investigate their potential catalytic activity in the model oxotransfer reaction between DMSO and PPh3 in order to evaluate the substituent’s effect on the dithiolene binding moiety.
Structure– and sequence–function relationships in (S)-amine transaminases and related enzymes
(2015)
Chiral primary amines are valuable building blocks for many biologically active compounds. Environmentally friendlier alternatives to the classical methods for α-chiral primary amine synthesis are highly desired. A biocatalytic alternative that recently proved beneficial for industrial applications is asymmetric synthesis utilising (S)-selective amine transaminases (S-ATAs). These enzymes can be utilized to transaminate a prochiral ketone with an amino donor (e.g. isopropylamine), to achieve a chiral amine and a carbonyl product (e.g. acetone). However, for several potential applications protein engineering is required to fit (S)-ATAS to the demands of an industrial process. Since no (S)-ATA crystal structure required for understanding the substrate recognition and thus protein engineering was available, we first aimed at obtaining structural data. Instead of solving crystal structures ourselves, we took advantage of structural genomics projects and discovered, that the protein data bank (PDB) already contained crystal structures of four enzymes with unknown function that we hypothesised to possess (S)-ATA activity. After developing a screening method, the four enzymes could be characterized as ω-amino acid:pyruvate transaminases (ωAA:pyr TAs). (S)-amine conversion was suggested to be a ‘substrate-promiscuous’ activity of these enzymes, as it is pronounced differently in the four investigated ones. By comparing the active sites of the highly and poorly active (S)-ATAs, the residues that determine the ability of amine conversion in these enzymes were discovered. Furthermore, the mechanism for dual substrate recognition, the binding of both, carboxyl and bulky hydrophobic substrates in the same active site, could be elucidated with the crystal structures. A flexible arginine side chain is able to adopt various positions thus enabling carboxylate binding and by ‘flipping’ out of the active site, to create space for amine binding. Then, a limitation of these enzymes, the restricted substrate scope caused by a small binding pocket was addressed. First, a rational protein engineering approach was set up to create more space. The tested mutations, however, destroyed most of the activity for both regular and more bulky substrates. We thus learned that the structural requirements for (S)-ATA activity are more complex than initially anticipated and a semi-rational approach was applied to broaden the substrate scope. By systematic saturation of active site positions, substantially improved mutants for bulkier amine synthesis could be obtained. As this study highlighted a lack of understanding of (S)-ATA, the functional important residues in the enzymes belonging to the class III TA family were surveyed. This family is defined by common sequence and structure features and besides (S)-ATAs mainly comprises TAs of various substrate scopes but also a few phospholyases, racemases and decarboxylases. To enable the comparison of active site residues among them, a commercial bioinformatics tool was used to create a family wide structure-based alignment of around 13,000 sequences. Based on statistical analyses of this alignment, structural inspections and literature evaluation, active site residues crucial for certain specificities within this family have been identified. By investigating the ingenious active site designs that enable such a plethora of reactions, and by identifying sets of functional important residues termed ‘active site fingerprints’, the understanding of catalysis in this enzyme family could be broadened. Furthermore, these functional important residues can on the one hand be applied to predict the specificity of uncharacterised enzymes, if a fingerprint is matched. On the other hand, if no fingerprint is matched, they can help to discover yet unknown activities or mechanisms to achieve a known specificity. We exemplified the latter case by functionally characterising a Bacillus anthracis enzyme with the crystal structure 3N5M, whose substrate specificity was unknown and could not be predicted. The 3N5M enzyme was found to possess ωAA:pyr TA and (S)-ATA activity even though it lacks the above-mentioned ‘flipping’ arginine. Based on molecular dynamics simulations we were able to propose an alternative mechanism for dual substrate recognition in the B. anthracis ωAA:pyr TA. By these findings the understanding of the requirements for (S)-ATA activity could be further broadened and a functional knowledge gap within the class III TA family was closed. The active site residue composition in 3N5M is now connected to enzymatic function and may be applied for future specificity predictions.