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The thyroid as the largest endocrine gland mainly produces and secretes the thyroid hormones (TH): 3,3’,5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) and its pro-hormone L-thyroxine (T4). Besides the impact on growth, normal development, bone marrow structure, the cardiovascular system, body weight and thermogenesis, TH play a vivid role in many metabolic regulatory mechanisms in almost all tissues. Thyroid diseases are relatively prevalent and cause, due to the resulting TH imbalances, a broad spectrum of effects. Many of them manifest in pathologically increased or decreased TH levels defined as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, respectively. Routinely, determination of the thyroid state is based on the assessment of the classical markers TSH and free T4. However, this practice has several drawbacks. Moreover, elucidation of the pleiotropic effects of TH on multiple molecular pathways is mostly based on cell culture, tissue and rodent models. Analysis of animal biofluids like serum and urine using metabolomics approaches demonstrated the extensive impact of TH on other body compartments. In contrast, proteome profiling has not been exploited for the comprehensive characterization of the general metabolic effects of TH. Plasma as a large and diverse compartment of the human proteome provides a great opportunity to identify novel protein markers of thyroid function as well as to characterize metabolic effects of TH in humans.
Therefore, a study of experimental thyrotoxicosis was performed with 16 male volunteers treated with 0.25 mg/d levothyroxine (L-T4) for 8 weeks to induce a hyperthyroid state. Plasma samples were collected before the L-T4 application started, two times during the treatment and additionally two times after withdrawal. Proteome analysis revealed remarkable alterations including increased levels of two known proteins known to correlate with TH levels (sex hormone-binding globulin and cystatin C). The correlation with free T4 levels revealed 76 out of 437 detected proteins with a Pearson correlation coefficient of r ≥ |0.9|. One prominent signature included 10 coagulation cascade proteins exhibiting significantly increased plasma levels during thyrotoxicosis, thereby revealing a trend towards a hypercoagulative state in hyperthyroidism. To overcome the statistical drawbacks of the Pearson correlation analysis, additionally a mixed-effect linear regression model using serum free T4 concentrations as exposure and protein abundances as outcome while controlling for age, BMI, and batch was implemented. Application of this model resulted in the detection of 63 proteins with significant associations to free T4 levels. Besides the already mentioned augmented coagulation, a significant drop in the amounts of three apolipoproteins (ApoD, ApoB-100 and ApoC3) was observed. Furthermore, an increased abundance of proteins assigned to the complement system was detected.
Experimental studies in humans were complemented by corresponding analyses in murine models. In the current work, plasma samples of two murine studies including male C57BL/6 wildtype mice were analyzed to elucidate the impact of thyroid dysfunction on the plasma proteome. The first study was similarly designed as the human model of experimentally induced thyrotoxicosis and assigned the animals to three groups: a control group, a T4 treatment group, and a T4 recovery group, whereupon the latter first received T4 followed by a subsequent TH normalization period. A high proportion of plasma proteins exhibited significantly different protein levels during T4 application (n = 120), where 90 of these also showed a corresponding reverse trend after T4 withdrawal (T4 recovery vs. T4), thereby displaying transient alterations. The molecular pattern of hyperthyroidism in the murine model indicated, as in the human study, a pronounced decrease in apolipoproteins. However, in clear contrast to the human data, the levels of proteins related to the coagulation cascade and complement system were also transiently decreased in mice, while being increased in humans.
The second murine analysis focused on the impact of hyper- and hypothyroidism caused by T3 or T4 treatment and MMI/KClO4 application, respectively. In general, compared to the first murine study less clear alterations of protein levels were detected. Proteins related to the complement system revealed fewer changes in the T3 group and only marginal changes after T4 induction. Unexpectedly, the MMI/KClO4-induced hypothyroidism caused a reduction of the levels of several proteins assigned to the complement system, although different components and factors were affected.
Generally, rodent studies partially provided a divergent picture of TH action as compared to human studies. However, in spite of inconsistent results in studies regarding the effects of TH that are possibly due to species-specific differences, an important role of TH on several metabolic and other pathways, e.g. in the process of blood coagulation and apolipoprotein regulation, is evident. The results from both murine and human studies presented here provide novel insights into changes in the plasma proteome in the context of thyroid diseases which might contribute to a better understanding of TH action on metabolism and other pathways.
Untersuchungen zum Mechanismus der oralen Absorption von Trospiumchlorid an gesunden Probanden
(2017)
In Deutschland leiden ca. 15 % der über 40-jährigen am Syndrom der überaktiven Blase (overactive bladder, OAB), welches durch plötzlich auftretenden, nicht aufhaltbaren Harndrang definiert wird. Trospiumchlorid (TC) ist ein kationischer, wasserlöslicher, antimuskarinerger Arzneistoff mit einer stark variablen Bioverfügbarkeit von ca. 10 %, der häufig zur Behandlung der OAB eingesetzt wird. Aufgrund seiner quartären Ammoniumstruktur überwindet er die Hirnschranke nicht und löst somit keine kognitiven Nebenwirkungen aus, was einen entscheidenden Vorteil gegenüber anderen Anticholinergika darstellt. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit war die Optimierung seines schlechten oralen Absorptionsverhaltens.
TC überwindet die Enterozytenmembran als Substrat des Efflux-Carriers P-glycoprotein (P-gp) und des Aufnahmetransporters organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1). Durch die geringe Expression von P-gp in den proximalen Dünndarmabschnitten und einer gleichmäßigen Expression von OCT1 im gesamten Darm vermuteten wir ein „Absorptionsfenster“ für TC in diesem proximalen Dünndarmareal.
In zwei nach ähnlichem Design durchgeführten kontrollierten, randomisierten, cross-over Studien der Phase I versuchten wir dieses vermutete „Absorptionsfenster“ mit der Simulation gastroretentiver Darreichungsformen für TC gezielt zu bedienen. Das TC sollte dabei mit Hilfe der Antrum-Motilität über einen längeren Zeitraum, in portionierten Mengen aus dem Magen in den Dünndarm befördert werden. In der offenen, vier-armigen GI-Studie (gastric infusion) benutzten wir dafür eine Magensonde über die 30 mg in Wasser gelöstes TC in einem Zeitraum von 6 h in den Magen infundiert wurden (GI). Im Vergleich dazu stand die orale Einnahme einer 30 mg schnell freisetzenden TC-Filmtablette (immediate release, IR). Die Applikationen erfolgten jeweils im nüchternen Zustand (fasted) und nach dem Verzehr einer standardisierten fettreichen Mahlzeit (FDA; fed).
In der NaHCO3-Studie (Natriumbikarbonat) simulierten wir unter Ausnutzung der verzögerten Magenentleerung nach Verzehr einer fettreichen Mahlzeit eine physiologische Form der gastroretentiven Darreichung von TC. Durch Zugabe einer NaHCO3-Kapsel zu TC (IR-TC + NaHCO3) als Brausesubstanz in Kontakt mit Magensäure, sollte TC gleichmäßig mit dem Mageninhalt vermischt werden, um interindividuelle Unterschiede in der TC-Bioverfügbarkeit zu verringern. Im Vergleich standen die intravenöse Gabe von TC (IV-TC) und die Komedikation eines NaHCO3-Placebos (IR-TC + NaHCO3-Placebo).
Die geplanten Ansätze zur Verbesserung des Absorptionsverhaltens von TC gelangen in beiden Studien leider nicht.
Mit Hilfe von pharmakokinetischem modelling der aus der GI-Studie gewonnenen Daten, postulierten wir mögliche Gründe. So fanden wir heraus, dass es im menschlichen Darm zwei „Absorptionsfenster“ für TC geben muss. Ein schmaleres mit geringerer Permeabilität im Jejunum und ein breiteres mit höherer Permeabilität im Caecum/Colon ascendens. Ursächlich hierfür könnten die lokale Häufigkeit und das Wechselspiel der in diesen Arealen vorkommenden Transportproteine P-gp und OCT1 sein. Der Versuch durch Gastroretention ein proximales „Absorptionsfenster“ zu bedienen erwies sich daher nach pharmakokinetischer Modellanalyse als Fehlkonzept. In zukünftigen Studien sollten weitere Darreichungsformen erprobt werden, die insbesondere auf eine Freisetzung des TCs im zweiten „Absorptionsfenster“ mit einer höheren Permeabilität für TC abzielen.
Interoceptive sensations, that means, perceptions of the physiological body state, play an important role in the generation and expression of emotion. The focus of the research presented here is on respiratory sensations as specific interoceptive signals. Such respiratory sensations (like the feeling of dyspnea) play an important role in symptom perception in somatic (e.g., asthma) as well as in mental disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders). There are several different ways to manipulate respiratory sensations in an experimental environment, but many of them did not equal sensations in daily life. Here, stimuli (inspiratory resistive loads, caffeine) were used that trigger nearly naturally occurring interoceptive sensations. Taking into account that the elicited interoceptive experience also induces an unpleasant feeling state it is most likely that individuals show defensive physiological responding to such cues and try to avoid them. According to a bidirectional motivational system defensive behaviors are regulated by a defensive motivational system that is activated by threatening cues. From research with exteroceptive stimuli it is known that defensive responding is typically characterized by heightened autonomic arousal, increased respiration, and a potentiated startle eyeblink response. In contrast, only a few studies using interoceptive stimuli have incorporated the measurement of physiological data in their experimental designs. If included, studies show also heightened autonomic responding, whilst a heterogeneous respiratory as well as startle eyeblink responding is observed. Thus, the studies presented here were designed to clarify the factors that mediate defensive responding to interoceptive sensations. Study 1 investigated the influence of anxiety on the subjective, respiratory, and autonomic response to an individually determined inspiratory resistive load, while study 2 focuses on the effect of attentional modulation of the startle eyeblink response to a mild respiratory threat. In study 3 the modulation of subjective, respiratory and autonomic reactions by arousal expectations was examined. Therefore, caffeine, a respiratory stimulant, or a placebo were administered without the participants’ knowledge. The fourth study examined the influence of the process of worrying, a strategy to deal with unpleasant body symptoms, on defensive responding. Depending on the study design subjective, respiratory and autonomic (skin conductance level, heart rate) parameters were assessed as marker for defensive mobilization. In study 2 and 4 the startle eyeblink response was measured as further index of defensive activation. Besides that in study 2 also the P3 component of the event-related potential, as an index for attentional allocation, was recorded. The main findings of the presented dissertation are the following: Study 1 revealed that 1) only high anxiety sensitive individuals reporting also high suffocation fear respond to lower stimulus intensities with stronger defensive responding, and 2) that this group demonstrated a maladaptive compensatory breathing pattern. Additionally, study 2 exhibited that 1) the startle eyeblink response is relatively inhibited during a mild interoceptive threat, and 2) this inhibition corresponds to an attention allocation towards breathing as indicated by a reduced P3 amplitude to the startle noise as well as subjective report. Furthermore, highly anxiety sensitive individuals showed a more pronounced defensive responding if the interoceptive sensations were unexpected (study 3). Recently, study 4 demonstrated that worry led to an increased defensive response mobilization. All studies are discussed in the context of the theoretical background of the defensive response modulation to exteroceptive and interoceptive sensations with respect to mediating factors. Showing exaggerated defensive responding and maladaptive adaptation processes in high anxious individuals the results point towards the important role of interoceptive sensations in the etiology, maintenance and therapy of mental disorders, especially the anxiety disorders.
Body sensations play a crucial role in the etiology and maintenance of diverse anxiety and health problems (e.g., in panic disorder or respiratory diseases) as they may be perceived as threatening and consequently elicit anxious responses. The factors that may affect the perception of bodily sensations as a threat and thus modulate the anxious response to body sensations have so far rarely been studied. Therefore, the present thesis targeted at elucidating the effect of contextual (i.e., the predictability, expectation, and proximity of a threat) and dispositional factors (i.e., tendency to fear arousal sensations or trait fear of suffocation) on the defensive response to body sensations.
In study 1, it was investigated how a personality factor, that is, fear of suffocation, affects the acquisition of fear to body sensations (i.e., mild dyspnea induced by inspiratory resistive loads) and contexts when faced with a predictable and unpredictable respiratory threat (i.e., severe dyspnea). Study 2 aimed at examining the main and interactive effects of the tendency to fear arousal sensations, again a personality trait factor, and current arousal expectations as varied by situational variables on anxious responding to arousal sensations. In this study, expected and unexpected arousal sensations were induced by administering caffeine in coffee or bitter lemon soda, respectively. Moreover, in study 3, it was explored how subjective anxiety, bodily symptoms, and defensive respiratory responses change and might culminate into active defense behavior (i.e., escape/active avoidance) during increasing dyspnea that was evoked by inspiratory resistive loads increasing in intensity. For a detailed analysis of the factors that contribute to the initiation and maintenance of avoidance of or escape from increasing dyspnea, in study 4 changes in subjective, autonomic, somatic reflex and brain responses were analyzed during repeated avoidance of increasing dyspnea.
In study 1, it was demonstrated that only individuals who fear suffocation learned to fear mild dyspnea preceding the onset of severe dyspnea and developed anxiety during a context of unpredictable respiratory threat. Moreover, the data from study 2 indicate that individuals who fear arousal sensations show an increased attention allocation towards unexpected arousal sensations and higher threat appraisal when expecting arousal sensations. Increasing intensity of dyspnea as provoked in study 3 led to increased defensive respiratory responses that were associated with increased symptom reports in individuals with high compared to low fear of suffocation. Moreover, culminating dyspnea elicited repeated avoidance behavior preceded by increases in defensive respiratory mobilization. The analysis of repeated avoidance of increasing dyspnea in study 4 revealed that physiological fear responses might be involved in the initial initiation of this avoidance behavior while no indication of response preparation and physiological arousal was related to persistent avoidance.
Taken together, the present data suggest that the fear of suffocation, as well as the tendency to fear arousal sensations along with the predictability, expectation, or proximity of interoceptive threat, may increase the perceived threat and thus the anxious response to body sensations. Therefore, contextual and dispositional factors may set the stage for the culmination of body sensations into defensive action and might contribute to the development of pathological anxiety and fear of body sensations. The present findings are integrated into the current literature and discussed in relation to the development and maintenance of pathological anxiety and fear of body sensations.
Prüfungsangst stellt eine schwerwiegende und häufig auftretende psychische Störung dar. In der klinischen Praxis war die Abgrenzung klinisch relevanter Prüfungsangst von subklinischer Prüfungsaufregung lange Zeit schwierig und die psychische Störung wurde uneinheitlich als soziale oder als spezifische Phobie kodiert, weil es an eindeutigen Diagnosekriterien mangelte. In den vergangenen Jahrzehnten intensiver Beforschung des Themenkomplexes Prüfungsangst, insbesondere durch die Pädagogische Psychologie, wurden vielfältige Variablen mit Prüfungsangst in Verbindung gebracht und als direkte oder indirekte Prädiktoren diskutiert. Bislang fehlte es jedoch an der Integration dieser unterschiedlichen Erklärungsansätze in ein geeignetes Rahmenmodell. Zunächst wurde untersucht, ob sich das „Test Anxiety Inventory“ (TAI) eignet, klinisch unauffällige von klinisch relevanter Prüfungsangst abzugrenzen. Dazu wurden eine Stichprobe 47 prüfungsängstlicher Patienten einer Psychotherapieambulanz und eine Gruppe von 41 Studenten mit gesunden Ausmaßen an Prüfungsangst verglichen. Dabei wurde auch untersucht, mittels welcher Diagnose die Prüfungsangst der Patienten von den behandelnden Therapeuten kodiert wurde und ob sich objektivierbare Unterschiede zwischen unterschiedlich klassifizierten Patienten finden lassen. Im zweiten Schritt wurden in Anlehnung an das Prüfungsangstmodell von Zeidner und Matthews (2007) die wichtigsten Prüfungsangstprädiktoren hinsichtlich ihrer prädiktiven Validität für die Unterscheidung pathologischer und gesunder Prüfungsangstintensitäten analysiert. Im dritten und letzten Arbeitsschritt wurde eine Stichprobe von 22 Prüfungsangstpatienten im Längsschnittverlauf einer kognitiv-verhaltenstherapeutischen Behandlung unter realistischen Therapiebedingungen betrachtet. Ziel war es dabei zu überprüfen, ob die bisherigen Erkenntnisse auch für die Vorhersage des Therapieerfolgs bedeutsam sind. Ein Cut-Off-Wert von 80 Punkten im TAI scheint sich zur Unterscheidung klinischer und nicht-klinischer Ausmaße an Prüfungsangst zu eignen. Das Krankheitsbild der untersuchten Prüfungsangstpatienten zeigt sich sehr einheitlich und ist unabhängig von der vergebenen Störungsdiagnose des Therapeuten. Das Vorliegen einer komorbiden depressiven Erkrankung beeinflusst nicht die Schwere der Prüfungsangst. Selbst bei Beachtung des Einflusses der grundsätzlichen psychischen Belastung ist eine Unterscheidung pathologischer und nicht-pathologischer Prüfungsangst anhand der Konstrukte Lernzielorientierung, Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept, Selbstbeschuldigung, Elaboration im Lernen und Perfektionismus möglich. Diese Variablen mit der höchsten diskriminierenden Validität entspringen allen drei Erklärungsebenen des Prüfungsangstmodells von Zeidner und Matthews, welches sich offensichtlich zur Untersuchung der Bedeutung der unterschiedlichen Prüfungsangstprädiktoren eignet. Im Rahmen der psychotherapeutischen Behandlung der Prüfungsangst kam es zwar insgesamt zur Reduktion prüfungsängstlicher, depressiver und sozialängstlicher Symptome sowie der grundsätzlichen psychischen Belastung, jedoch haben die Patienten sehr unterschiedlich auf die Behandlung angesprochen. Nahezu 50 Prozent der behandelten Betroffenen weisen auch nach dem Therapieende noch immer klinisch relevante Werte an Prüfungsangst und nur unerhebliche Verbesserungen der anderen interessierenden Variablen auf. Die Bedeutung der Variablen Elaboration, Lernzielorientierung, Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept und Selbstbeschuldigung bestätigt sich auch in der Längsschnittanalyse. Der empfohlene Cut-Off-Wert im TAI sollte in repräsentativen Stichproben repliziert und das Instrument konventionell zur Diagnostik von Prüfungsangst verwendet werden um die Identifikation pathologischer Prüfungsangst zu erleichtern und dem Screening sowie der Differentialdiagnostik der Störung zu dienen. Schwere und Generalisierungsgrad sozialängstlicher Symptome sollten in der Prüfungsangstdiagnostik stärker beachtet werden. Die Möglichkeit, Prüfungsangst wie im DSM-5 als Sozialphobie mit dem Spezifikator „Nur in Leistungssituationen“ zu diagnostizieren, sollte zukünftig auch im ICD Anwendung finden um die Kodierung der Prüfungsangst zu vereinheitlichen. Parallel vorliegende psychische Erkrankungen sollten frühzeitig im Verlauf der Diagnostik in ihrer Bedeutung als Ursache oder Folge von Prüfungsangst identifiziert werden um entsprechende Ableitungen für den Behandlungsplan vornehmen zu können. Die klinische Forschung sollte sich stärker auf das Prüfungsangstmodell von Zeidner und Matthews und bei Replikation unserer Ergebnisse auf die zentralen Prüfungsangstprädiktoren Lernzielorientierung, Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept, Selbstbeschuldigung, Elaboration und Perfektionismus konzentrieren. Entsprechende Behandlungsansätze sollten gezielt auf ihren Therapieeffekt hin untersucht werden. Zudem sollte genau analysiert werden, welche weiteren Faktoren es gibt, die über das Therapieansprechen entscheiden.
Psychological health is a result of the effective interplay between explicit and implicit attempts to regulate ones’ emotions (Koole & Rothermund, 2011). Emotion regulation refers to processes that influence the intensity, the duration and the type of emotion experienced (Gross & Thompson, 2007). While explicit emotion regulation comprises effortful mental processes, implicit emotion regulation refers to processes that require no monitoring and terminate automatically (Gyurak, Gross, & Etkin, 2011).
In the present thesis, explicit and implicit strategies to regulate emotions were investigated. In Study 1, a well-established paradigm (Gross & Levenson, 1993) was adapted to examine the up- and down-regulation of positive and negative emotions using two different explicit emotion regulation strategies. To infer on the neurobiological correlates, blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) brain activity was recorded using functional magnetic resonance tomography. Furthermore, as a trait marker for the individual ability to regulate emotions, heart rate variability (HRV) was acquired during rest. In Study 2, implicit emotion regulation was examined. Therefore, a well-established fear extinction paradigm was compared to a novel approach based on the integration of new information during reconsolidation (Schiller et al., 2010). Autonomic arousal was measured via the skin conductance response during fear acquisition, fear extinction and after fear reinstatement. In Study 3, two dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies —worrying and rumination— were investigated. Excessive worrying and rumination are pathogenic characteristics of psychological disorders. Behavioral, autonomic and BOLD activity was recorded during worried and ruminative thinking as well as during neutral thinking.
The results showed that explicit emotion regulation was associated with modulated BOLD activity in the amygdala according to the regulation direction independent of the applied strategy and the valence of the emotion. In addition, increased dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) activity was observed during regulation compared to passively viewing emotional pictures. The findings are in line with previous research (Eippert etal., 2007; Kim &Hamann, 2007; Ochsner etal., 2004) and support the key role of the dlPFC during the explicit regulation of emotions. Similarly, implicit emotion regulation was associated with a decreased autonomic fear response, which was sustained after fear extinction during reconsolidation. The findings underscore the notion, that this novel technique might alter the initial fear memory resulting in a permanently diminished fear response (Nader, Schafe, & LeDoux, 2000; Schiller et al., 2010). Dysfunctional emotion regulation was associated with increased autonomic activity and fear potentiated startle (during worry) as well as increased BOLD activity in the insula (during worry and rumination) and increased BOLD activity in the amygdala (during rumination). In addition, neural activity in brain areas associated with the default mode network was observed. These findings stress the preserved negative emotional activity and the self-referential nature of the examined dysfunctional strategies. The results of all three studies are integrated into a neuro-biological model of emotion regulation focusing on the interplay between subcortical and prefrontal brain areas.
There is multiple evidence that emotionally arousing events are preferentially processed, and better remembered than neutral events. In the present dissertation I investigated whether those strong emotional memories are affected by acute and chronic stress. Moreover, I was interested in whether already established emotional memories can be changed by behavioral intervention. According to the modulation hypothesis, emotionally arousing events promote attention and memory processes via noradrenergic and glucocorticoid actions. Recent models suggest that stress hormones differentially impact mnemonic processing, namely encoding, (re-) consolidation and memory retrieval, depending on timing and duration of the stressor relative to the learning experience. Acute stress around the time of encoding has been found to enhance memory, whereas chronic stress has been associated with memory impairments. Furthermore, consolidated memories are not resistant to modifications. Following reactivation, memories can turn into an unstable state and undergo a process called reconsolidated in order to persist. During this vulnerable state, memories are prone to modification, for instance by pharmacological blockade or interference learning. Here, the modulation of newly formed emotional and neutral memories as well as existing emotional and neutral memories was investigated in a well-established picture viewing and recognition memory paradigm using behavioral and neurophysiological measures (event-related potential, ERPs). More elaborative processing of emotional, relative to neutral stimuli has been related to the late positive potential (LPP). During encoding of emotional and neutral pictures, enhanced LPPs (starting at about 400 ms after stimulus onset) are usually observed for emotionally arousing relative to neutral pictures, indicating preferential attention allocation and processing. During recognition, correctly recognized old items evoke larger ERP amplitudes than correctly identified new items. This difference, the ERP old/new effect, was used to measure mnemonic processing during retrieval. The ERP old/new effect over centro-parietal sensor sites (400-800 ms) has been associated with recollection processes, and is enhanced for emotional, compared to neutral materials. Three studies are presented, that investigated 1) the influence of acute stress prior to encoding on long-term memory and its neural correlates, 2) the impact of chronic stress on encoding and memory, and 3) the influence of interference on already established memories (reconsolidation), always contrasting emotionally arousing and neutral scenes. Study 1 investigated subsequent recognition memory after encoding following acute stress using a socially evaluated cold pressure test, while study 2 tested the influence of chronic stress investigating breast cancer survivors about two years after cancer treatment. In study 3, one day after encoding, reconsolidation of the reactivated picture memory was targeted with an interfering learning task. In all three studies, recognition memory was tested one week later. High-density electroencephalograms (EEGs; 257 electrodes) were recorded to measure brain potentials. The results showed, in line with previous research, that emotionally arousing scenes were preferentially processed, as indicated by larger LPPs, and were better remembered than neutral scenes, as indicated by enhanced memory performance and larger ERP old/new differences. Experiencing acute stress prior to encoding enhanced the centro-parietal ERP old/new effect for emotionally arousing pictures at recognition, corroborating that acute stress facilitates memory for emotional scenes (Study 1). In contrast, attenuated LPPs for unpleasant pictures and impaired memory performance for arousing pictures were observed in breast cancer survivors (Study 2), indicating altered attention to emotion and subsequent emotional memory storage in chronically stressed individuals. When memory reactivation was followed by an interfering learning task, recognition memory and ERP old/new differences were attenuated for emotionally arousing scenes, selectively, showing the possibility that emotional memories might be modulated by behavioral interventions (Study 3). The results of all three studies are discussed and integrated into a model of memory modulation by stress and interference. The results highlight the importance of understanding the role of emotional arousal in the processes of memory formation, retrieval and reconsolidation. Moreover, shedding light on the differential effects of acute and chronic stress, interference and their possible interactions might help to prevent and even modify impairing memories that are one of the major concerns in stress- and fear-related mental disorders.
Lead-cluster investigations
(2017)
In this thesis, investigations on lead clusters stored in a Penning trap are presented. The measurements are performed at the ClusterTrap setup at the Institute of Physics of the University of Greifswald. A Penning trap with a superconducting magnet (B=12 Tesla) makes up the central part of the experiment. In this trap, singly positively or negatively charged lead clusters (a group of lead atoms) are stored, their amplitudes of motion are cooled, and a specific cluster size is selected. Thus, clusters of only a single size are prepared for experimental investigation. After interactions with electrons and/or photons, the trap content is extracted and analyzed by time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
In the first experiment, the size-selected clusters are excited by a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser, which leads to fragmentation processes. The preferred fragmentation pathway, which is observed to be break-off of a seven-atom neutral cluster is unusual for metal clusters, which typically evaporate monomers. Furthermore, the already known magic cluster sizes are observed.
In a subsequent experiment, positively charged lead clusters with 31 atoms are irradiated with laser light and fragmentation processes are time resolved investigated. The assumption that lead clusters fragment by break-off of neutral heptamers is confirmed.
In the following experiment, an electron beam is guided through the Penning trap to ionize pulsed-in argon atoms. While the positive argon ions leave the trap, the secondary electrons are trapped together with the selected lead clusters. This allows the electrons to attach to the singly charged lead clusters, which leads to multiply negatively charged lead clusters. The relative abundance of multiply-charged clusters is measured with respect to the cluster size, from which the appearance sizes of di- and trianions can be calculated. In addition to the attachment of electrons, fragmentation products similar to those of the photoexcitation measurements are observed. Furthermore, the cluster sizes 10 and 12 are observed regardless of the investigated precursor size, together with clusters of the precursor size reduced by 10 and 12. This is a first hint for a fission process of doubly negatively charged lead clusters into two singly charged products. In a following measurement, doubly charged lead clusters are produced and photoexcited. The observed abundance spectra confirm this assumption.