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Vegetation dynamics on abandoned terraces of Sicily: the course and driving factors of succession
(2007)
Secondary succession processes have been widely studied in Europe for some agroecosystems, but not for terraced ones. The first part of the present study focuses on a description of the plant communities involved in secondary succession processes on Sicily (Italy) a) from a floristic and structural point of view and b) from a species diversity point of view. In order to obtain these results, 129 vegetation relevés (sensu Braun-Blanquet) were made on abandoned terraces in five of the main terraced areas of Siciliy: 1) the Aeolian Islands, 2) Pantelleria Island, 3) Mt. Etna, 4) the Palermo Mts. and 5) the Hyblaean Plateau. Only abandoned vineyards or grain crop fields were selected as sample plots, always 50 m2-sized. The results of biodiversity evaluation by t-tests and ANOVA showed that vascular plant diversity is linked to disturbance regime and to abiotic factors (especially geological substrate). Especially grazing increases species richness. Moreover, it was found that on limestone species richness is higher than on volcanic substrates. Vegetation relevés were also analysed with DCA and TWINSPAN. The resulting 14 sample plot groups (= clusters) were then used to check the dynamic relations. From a floristic point of view, plant communities involved in secondary succession processes on Sicilian terraces are quite different between and within the five study areas. This is mainly due to different substrate and bioclimatic conditions. Moreover, vegetation is strongly influenced by abandonment age and disturbance status. If no disturbance biases succession, then plant communities evolve rather rapidly (30-50 years) to maquis communities. If frequent fires or intense grazing occur, secondary succession is blocked in a "steady state". The second part of the present study focuses on the colonization mechanisms of old fields by woody species. In a first section, the existence of 1) the neighbourhood effect and 2) the safe-site effect are checked by analyzing 51 transect relevés, made up of 357 subplot relevés (1x1m). The transects were made in target fields 1) with older neighbour (i.e. old succession stage characterized by maquis communities) and 2) with older neighbour absent within a 100 m-distance. All woody species individuals were counted, recording if they grew within the influence of a potential safe site (former crop plants of vine and the terrace wall base). Data evaluation by Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and Mann-Whitney Rank Sum confirmed the existence of the two effects. Moreover, it was shown that animals as dispersal vectors strongly influence these effects. For the neighbourhood effect, seed dispersal distance is the crucial point, while for the safe site effect 1) passive facilitation (i.e. animals tend to create heterogeneous seed rain patterns because they frequent certain microhabitats more often than others) and 2) active facilitation (i.e. the positive influence of an existing woody or herbaceous plant individual on the establishment or the growth of another one) are crucial. The second section describes the performance of establishment of Quercus ilex L. in different microsites of terraced old fields. In November 2004, acorns were buried on a North-facing slope and on a South-facing slope in five different microsites: 1) under vine plants, 2) at wall bases, 3) under the canopies of isolated shrubs, 4) between small rock accumulations and 5) in open spaces (i.e. outside of any of the previously named microsites). In monthly checks, seedling emergence, survival, height and leaf number were recorded. Moreover, in April and July were measured air temperature and air humidity in the different microsites. Overall emergence rate was 52.4% (n = 1,020). More seedlings emerged on the South-facing slope (S; 59.8%) than on the North-facing slope (N; 45.0%). Emergence was higher when acorns were buried under vine plants and at the wall base than in other microsites of the old fields. At the end of the experiment (September 2006), 45.3% of all emerged seedlings were still alive (29.2% on N, 58.9% on S). Survival was higher in general on the South-facing slope, and higher under vine plants and at the wall base than in the open spaces of the old fields. From literature, it is known that seed vitality, seed germination and seedling survival of Quercus ilex are favoured by shady, wet and fresh conditions. The temperature and air humidity measurements showed that at the wall base, under vine plants and under isolated shrubs environmental conditions are milder than in open spaces. However, even if temperature and relative air humidity seem to play an important role for Quercus ilex seedling emergence and survival, they did not unambiguously explain the differences between the safe site types. A factor of major importance is probably soil moisture. As a last part, the present study discusses what does the obtained results mean for terrace landscape conservation and biodiversity management.
Die mitteleuropäischen Flachbärlappe (Gattung Diphasiastrum) sind in Deutschland alle hochgradig gefährdet und können ohne geeignete Artenhilfsmaßnahmen hier nicht dauerhaft überleben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Grundlagen für ein Artenhilfsprogramm geschaffen, indem die Reproduktionsbiologie untersucht worden ist und die ökologischen Ansprüche und Gefährdungsursachen ermittelt wurden, um entsprechende Hilfsmaßnahmen für die Arten zu entwickeln.
Um Rückschlüsse auf das Reproduktionssystem der Eltern- und Hybridarten zu erhalten, wurde die genetische Diversität ermittelt. Dabei kam das fingerprinting-Verfahren AFLP zum Einsatz, womit Arten und genetisch verschiedene Individuen voneinander abgegrenzt werden können. Verwendet wurden die beiden Primer-Kombinationen EcoRI-AAG / VspI-CT und EcoRI-ACT / VspI-CAG. Die größte genetische Diversität der Elternarten weist D. complanatum auf, die überwiegend durch echte Fremdbefruchtung (outcrossing) entsteht, während die genetische Diversität der beiden anderen Elternarten D. alpinum und D. tristachyum gering ist und nur knapp oberhalb einer definierten Fehlerrate liegt. Die Proben der Hybridarten unterscheiden sich so stark voneinander, dass davon ausgegangen werden muss, dass dies immer wieder neu entstehende F1-Hybriden sind, wenngleich die Unterschiede bei D. oellgaardii vergleichsweise gering aufgrund der geringen genetischen Diversität der Elternarten D. alpinum und D. tristachyum ist.
Die Sporenproduktion in den Sporenständen wurde unter anderem direkt durch Zählung von Sporen in den Sporangien unterm Stereomikroskop und Zählung der Sporangien in den Sporenständen ermittelt. Sporangien von L. clavatum enthalten demnach 27735 (± 7492) Sporen pro Sporangium, 105,2 (± 3,7) Sporangien pro Sporenstand und hochgerechnet etwa 2,1 bis 3,8 Millionen Sporen pro Sporenstand.
Die terminale Fallgeschwindigkeit liegt für L. clavatum bei 2,16 (± 0,11) cm*s-1 und für D. complanatum bei 2,25 (± 0,10) cm*s-1. Die Sporen haben einen Durchmesser von 29,5 (± 2,0) μm bzw. 32,3 (± 2,5) μm. Die gemessene Geschwindigkeit liegt deutlich unter der theoretischen und lässt sich damit erklären, da Sporen keine perfekten Kugeln sind und aufgrund ihrer stark reliefierten Oberfläche Turbulenzen erzeugt werden, die den Fall verlangsamen.
Die Anzahl der in Entfernungen bis 200 m zu einer sporenbildenden Population fliegenden Sporen wurde mithilfe von vertikalen klebenden Sporenfallen bei D. complanatum, D. tristachyum und L. clavatum bestimmt. Nur für die Population von L. clavatum mit 11358 reifen Sporenständen auf kleiner Fläche wurden weitere Berechnungen durchgeführt. Folgende Funktion beschreibt die Anzahl der durch die Luft fliegenden Sporen in einer Höhe von etwa 40 cm über dem Boden in Abhängigkeit zur Entfernung x: f(x) = 45878*x-2,302 (R² = 0,9979). Es konnten selbst in 200 m Entfernung noch einzelne Sporen an den Sporenfallen nachgewiesen werden. Da die maximale theoretische Ausbreitungsdistanz bei nur knapp 130 m liegt, selbst wenn ein konstant horizontal wehender Wind von 100 km/h angenommen wird, müssen aufwärtsgerichtete Luftströmungen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Fernausbreitung spielen.
Die Ansiedlungsversuche wurden im Thüringer Schiefergebirge am Grünen Band bei Brennersgrün (D. alpinum und D. tristachyum) und im Pöllwitzer Wald (D. complanatum) durchgeführt. Als Vergleichsart wurde wieder L. clavatum verwendet. Die Sprossverpflanzungen verliefen insgesamt erfolgreich mit einer Überlebensrate von 8% für D. alpinum, 17% für D. complanatum, 8% für D. tristachyum und 22% für L. clavatum. Der jährliche Rhizomzuwachs liegt bei 0,5 cm, 13,3 (± 1,8) cm, 7,5 cm bzw. 9,1 (± 4,0) cm für die entsprechenden Arten.
Die Vegetationsbedeckung vorher abgeplaggter Flächen liegt zwischen 39 und 53% nach zwei Jahren, jedoch mit großen Unterschieden selbst zwischen benachbarten Flächen und wird hauptsächlich durch ein schnelles Mooswachstum bestimmt.
Nach etwa fünf Monaten sind keine Sporen auf sterilem Nährstoffmedium gekeimt, obwohl diese unterschiedlich behandelt wurden, zum Beispiel mit Rauchgas, Hitze, konzentrierter Schwefelsäure oder durch Mörsern. Auch die Keimungsversuche an den Wuchsorten waren nach 2,5 Jahren erfolglos. Eine Erklärung kann ein Dormanzstadium unbekannter Dauer vor der Keimung sein.
Der Anzahl der jährlich gebildeten vertikalen Sprossbüschel wurde indirekt für je eine Population für D. zeilleri (2,5/Jahr) und D. issleri (2,0/Jahr) bestimmt, indem der Quotient aus der Anzahl der Sprossbüschel an der längsten Rhizomverbindung und dem bekannten Alter des Standorts ermittelt worden ist. Die Zugehörigkeit von Rhizomstücken zu einem Klon wurde mit der AFLP-Methode abgesichert. Die meisten Populationen in Deutschland werden demnach mehrere Jahrzehnte alt, jedoch ohne beobachtete Verjüngung über Prothallien. Eine Erklärung könnten die immer noch sehr geringen pH-Werte in den Unterböden von 3,6 (± 0,24) sein, die giftige Al3+-Ionen pflanzenverfügbar machen.
Species persistence in the face of rapidly progressing environmental change requires adaptive responses that allow organisms to either cope with the novel conditions in their habitat or to follow their environmental niche in space. A poleward range shift due to global warming induced habitat loss in the south has been predicted for the lesser horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus hipposideros. Theoretical as well as numerous empirical studies link range expansion success to increased dispersal and reproduction rates due to spatial sorting and r-selection resulting from low population densities at the expansion front. R. hipposideros females however are highly philopatric and the species’ life history reflects a K- rather than an r-strategy, encompassing a long life span and limited individual annual reproductive output. I therefore investigated if adaptations in these traits determining range expansion success (dispersal and reproduction) can be observed in this bat species of high conservation concern. Genetic diversity presents a critical factor for adaptive responses to global change, both for range expansion and for coping with novel environmental conditions. I hence explored the genetic diversity levels of European R. hipposideros leading edge populations and their drivers for an assessment of these populations’ evolutionary potential and the development of conservation recommendations.
Comparing range expansion traits between an expanding R. hipposideros metapopulation in Germany and a non-expanding one in France revealed that range expansion was associated with an increase in juvenile survival and fecundity, and no decrease in adult survival. These results demonstrate than an increase in reproduction and growth rates is generally possible in R. hipposideros, indicating a potential adaptation (sensu lato) to range expansion. A positive correlation between adult and juvenile survival in the expanding metapopulation suggests higher resource acquisition in the expanding metapopulation, giving rise to the question if the observed demographic changes have a genetic basis or if they are rather induced by differences in environmental conditions between the two metapopulations. Long-term range expansion success requires adaptive evolutionary changes. The relative contribution of the former and that of undirected changes resulting e.g. from differences in resource availability therefore will have to be investigated in more detail in the future to allow predictions about range expansion dynamics in R. hipposideros.
The number of individuals within a radius of approximately 60 to 90 km around a population (as a measure of connectivity) was identified as the main positive driver of the studied populations’ genetic diversity. Overall genetic diversity levels in German R. hipposideros populations were found to be reduced compared to populations in France as a legacy of demographic bottlenecks resulting from severe population declines in the mid-20th century. This finding is alarming as future range expansion can be expected to entail a further decrease in genetic diversity. The resulting loss of genetic diversity can be expected to be particularly strong in R. hipposideros due to the detected dependence of genetic diversity on connectivity, because range expansion often results in small and patchy populations.
Protecting and ideally re-installing genetic diversity in R. hipposideros leading edge populations therefore presents a conservation goal of utmost importance. To achieve this endeavour, conservation efforts should target the protection of extensive networks of well-connected populations. Geographical concentration of individuals should be avoided and populations in key locations that connect clusters must be protected particularly well to prevent populations from becoming isolated. Continuous, regular monitoring of population trends is also important for a quick registration of disturbances or threats, and the subsequent rapid development of countermeasures to preclude further demographic declines.
The reduced levels of genetic diversity in the German metapopulation precluded a reliable quantification of dispersal rates due to the reduced power of discrimination between individuals. While ongoing re-colonization and the establishment of new maternity colonies provide evidence for increased dispersal in the expanding metapopulation, evaluating the expected range expansion velocity of R. hipposideros in relation to the estimated velocity of global warming induced habitat loss will require the confirmation of the existing preliminary dispersal data by employing more genetic markers.