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Thioredoxine (Trxs) bilden eine Familie ubiquitärer Oxidoreduktasen, welche durch posttranslationale Redox-Modifikationen von Cysteinyl-Thiolgruppen sowie die Regulation der intrazellulären Wasserstoffperoxidgehaltes die zelluläre Redoxantwort steuern. Es ist bekannt, dass Thioredoxine, Glutaredoxine (Grxs) und Peroxiredoxine (Prxs) wesentliche Signalwege von Inflammation, Proliferation und Apoptose beeinflussen und somit in vielen Pathologien, insbesondere bei entzündlichen Erkrankungen wie dem allergischen Asthma, eine entscheidende Rolle spielen. Derzeit sind vorwiegend die intrazellulären Funktionen der Proteine der Trx-Familie in Gesundheit und Krankheit umfassend untersucht, doch die extrazellulären Funktionen bei der Redox-Signalübertragung bleiben bis zum heutigen Tage weitestgehend im Dunkeln. In dieser Arbeit haben wir uns daher zum Ziel gesetzt, Verteilung und Funktion von Proteinen der Trx-Familie in der Regulation der Immunantwort zu untersuchen, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf dem extrazellulären Vorkommen und den damit verbundenen Eigenschaften liegt.
Allergische Atemwegsentzündungen sind durch bronchiale Obstruktion und chronischen Umbau sowie Hyperreagibilität der Atemwege gekennzeichnet. Die Anhäufung reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies in der bronchialen Flüssigkeit der Lunge und die sich daraus ergebenden Veränderungen des Redoxzustands in den bronchialen Epithelzellen sind in den letzten Jahren in den Fokus der Asthmaforschung gerückt. Mehrere Studien beschrieben eine positive Wirkung von Trx1 und Grx1 in Atemwegsinfektionen, so würde eine Th2-typische Immunmodulation reduziert und verringere in der Folge den Umbau der Atemwegsstruktur – eine zentrale Pathologie des Asthmas.
In dieser Studie untersuchten wir die Expressionsniveaus von Proteinen der Trx-Familie in Lungengewebe und bronchoalveolärer Lavageflüssigkeit in einem Mausmodell der Ovalbumin (OVA) induzierten allergischen Atemwegsentzündung. Wir konnten eine Zunahme von Grx2 und Prx4 in intrazellulären Proben aus der Mäuselunge nach einsetzen der induzierten Atemwegsinfektion zeigen. Ausschließlich unter OVA-induzierter Inflammation wurde in diesen Proben eine zweite Isoform von Grx2, zytosolisches Grx2c, nachgewiesen. Die Behandlung von Mäusen mit intraperitoneal appliziertem, rekombinantem Grx2 parallel zur Induktion der Entzündung mit OVA, hatte eine entzündungshemmende Wirkung, die zu einer Verringerung des asthmatischen Phänotyps in der Immunhistochemie und einer signifikanten Reduktion der Gesamtzahl der Entzündungszellen, besonders der eosinophilen Granulozyten führte. Die Verabreichung der rekombinanten Grx2C40S-Mutante, der die Fähigkeit zur Katalyse des Dithiol-Reaktionsmechanismus fehlt, hatte nicht die gleiche entzündungshemmende Wirkung. Eine zusätzlich durchgeführte His-Tag-Färbung zeigte eine Aufnahme von rekombinantem Grx2 in die Epithelzellen und Makrophagen der entzündeten Lunge. Die Färbung von Lungenabschnitten für HIF1- und Pro-Caspase3 nahm nach Beginn der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung zu und ging bei den mit dem wildtyp Grx2 behandelten Mäusen deutlich zurück.
In den extrazellulären Fraktionen war die Konzentration von Trx1, Grx1, Prx2 und Prx4 unter Entzündungsbedingungen erhöht, zudem konnte Prx4 in dieser Studie erstmals nur in der Entzündung, nicht aber bei gesunden Mäusen nachgewiesen werden. In-vitro-Experimente, bei denen Makrophagen aus Balb/c-Mäusen stimuliert wurden, sollten Aufschluss über die Funktionen von Trxs und Grxs in der Immunantwort geben. Grx2 und Trx1 wurden als potenzielle Stimulatoren von Makrophagen identifiziert, die die Sekretion von RANTES, IL-6, IL-10 und TNF-α induzieren, während die Zytokinspiegel von IL-4 und INF-γ nicht verändert wurden. Bei kombinierter Verabreichung von Redoxinen mit LPS/IFN-γ, die einen Entzündungszustand nachahmt, wurde gezeigt, dass Trx1 die Zytokinspiegel von TNF-α und INF-γ im Vergleich zu LPS/IFN-γ allein senkt. Die Behandlung mit Trx1/LPS/IFN-γ induzierte die Produktion von IL-6 und RANTES auf ein Niveau vergleichbar mit der alleinigen Stimulation durch LPS/IFN-γ.
Diese Arbeit beleuchtet Proteinveränderungen von Thioredoxinen, Glutaredoxinen und Peroxiredoxinen in einem Mausmodell für allergische Atemwegsentzündungen mit besonderem Schwerpunkt auf der extrazellulären Verteilung und Funktion der Proteine. Wir zeigen, dass die Veränderungen der Proteinspiegel selektiv reguliert werden und zu einem fein abgestimmten Netzwerk von Partnern in der Redox-Signalgebung beitragen und somit Potenzial für mögliche Therapieansätze bieten.
Macrophages are cells of the innate immune system and represent an important component of the first-line defense against pathogens and tumor cells. Here, their diverse functions in inflammation and tumor defense are described, and the mechanisms, tools, and activation pathways and states applied are presented. The main focus is on the role and origin of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the important signal pathways TLR/NF-κB, and the M1/M2 polarization of macrophages.
Tissue sections, which are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories and have already been examined by immunohistochemistry (IHC), may subsequently provide a resource for proteomic studies, even though only small amount of protein is available. Therefore, we established a workflow for tandem mass spectrometry-based protein profiling of IHC specimens and characterized defined brain area sections. We investigated the CA1 region of the hippocampus dissected from brain slices of adult C57BL/6J mice. The workflow contains detailed information on sample preparation from brain slices, including removal of antibodies and cover matrices, dissection of region(s) of interest, protein extraction and digestion, mass spectrometry measurement, and data analysis. The Gene Ontology (GO) knowledge base was used for further annotation. Literature searches and Gene Ontology annotation of the detected proteins verify the applicability of this method for global protein profiling using formalin-fixed and embedded material and previously used IHC slides.
Mutations in genes coding for proteasome subunits and/or proteasome assembly helpers typically cause recurring autoinflammation referred to as chronic atypical neutrophilic dermatosis with lipodystrophy and elevated temperatures (CANDLE) or proteasome-associated autoinflammatory syndrome (PRAAS). Patients with CANDLE/PRAAS present with mostly chronically elevated type I interferon scores that emerge as a consequence of increased proteotoxic stress by mechanisms that are not fully understood. Here, we report on five unrelated patients with CANDLE/PRAAS carrying novel inherited proteasome missense and/or nonsense variants. Four patients were compound heterozygous for novel pathogenic variants in the known CANDLE/PRAAS associated genes, PSMB8 and PSMB10, whereas one patient showed additive loss-of-function mutations in PSMB8. Variants in two previously not associated proteasome genes, PSMA5 and PSMC5, were found in a patient who also carried the PSMB8 founder mutation, p.T75M. All newly identified mutations substantially impact the steady-state expression of the affected proteasome subunits and/or their incorporation into mature 26S proteasomes. Our observations expand the spectrum of PRAAS-associated genetic variants and improve a molecular diagnosis and genetic counseling of patients with sterile autoinflammation.
Introduction
Proteasome inhibition is first line therapy in multiple myeloma (MM). The immunological potential of cell death triggered by defects of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and subsequent perturbations of protein homeostasis is, however, less well defined.
Methods
In this paper, we applied the protein homeostasis disruptors bortezomib (BTZ), ONX0914, RA190 and PR619 to various MM cell lines and primary patient samples to investigate their ability to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD).
Results
Our data show that while BTZ treatment triggers sterile type I interferon (IFN) responses, exposure of the cells to ONX0914 or RA190 was mostly immunologically silent. Interestingly, inhibition of protein de-ubiquitination by PR619 was associated with the acquisition of a strong type I IFN gene signature which relied on key components of the unfolded protein and integrated stress responses including inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1), protein kinase R (PKR) and general control nonderepressible 2 (GCN2). The immunological relevance of blocking de-ubiquitination in MM was further reflected by the ability of PR619-induced apoptotic cells to facilitate dendritic cell (DC) maturation via type I IFN-dependent mechanisms.
Conclusion
Altogether, our findings identify de-ubiquitination inhibition as a promising strategy for inducing ICD of MM to expand current available treatments.
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a small subset of slowly dividing cells with tumor-initiating ability. They can self-renew and differentiate into all the distinct cell populations within a tumor. CSCs are naturally resistant to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. CSCs, thus, can repopulate a tumor after therapy and are responsible for recurrence of disease. Stemness manifests itself through, among other things, the expression of stem cell markers, the ability to induce sphere formation and tumor growth in vivo, and resistance to chemotherapeutics and irradiation. Stemness is maintained by keeping levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) low, which is achieved by enhanced activity of antioxidant pathways. Here, cellular sources of ROS, antioxidant pathways employed by CSCs, and underlying mechanisms to overcome resistance are discussed.
Proteostasis, a portmanteau of the words protein and homeostasis, refers to the ability of
eukaryotic cells to maintain a stable proteome by acting on protein synthesis, quality control and/or
degradation. Over the last two decades, an increasing number of disorders caused by proteostasis
perturbations have been identified. Depending on their molecular etiology, such diseases may be
classified into ribosomopathies, proteinopathies and proteasomopathies. Strikingly, most—if not
all—of these syndromes exhibit an autoinflammatory component, implying a direct cause-and-effect
relationship between proteostasis disruption and the initiation of innate immune responses. In this
review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular pathogenesis of these disorders and
summarize current knowledge of the various mechanisms by which impaired proteostasis promotes
autoinflammation. We particularly focus our discussion on the notion of how cells sense and integrate
proteostasis perturbations as danger signals in the context of autoinflammatory diseases to provide
insights into the complex and multiple facets of sterile inflammation.
Abstract
G‐quadruplexes have attracted growing interest in recent years due to their occurrence in vivo and their possible biological functions. In addition to being promising targets for drug design, these four‐stranded nucleic acid structures have also been recognized as versatile tools for various technological applications. Whereas a large number of studies have yielded insight into their remarkable structural diversity, our current knowledge on G‐quadruplex stabilities as a function of sequence and environmental factors only gradually emerges with an expanding collection of thermodynamic data. This minireview provides an overview of general rules that may be used to better evaluate quadruplex thermodynamic stabilities but also discusses present challenges in predicting most stable folds for a given sequence and environment.
Reduction and oxidation reactions are essential for biochemical processes. They are part of metabolic pathways and signal transduction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) as second messengers and oxidative modifications of cysteinyl (Cys) residues are key to transduce and translate intracellular and intercellular signals. Dysregulation of cellular redox signaling is known as oxidative distress, which has been linked to various pathologies, including neurodegeneration. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative pathology linked to both, abnormal amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, generating Aβ peptide, and Tau hyperphosphorylation and aggregation. Signs of oxidative distress in AD include: increase of ROS (H2O2, O2•−), decrease of the levels or activities of antioxidant enzymes, abnormal oxidation of macromolecules related to elevated Aβ production, and changes in mitochondrial homeostasis linked to Tau phosphorylation. Interestingly, Cys residues present in APP form disulfide bonds that are important for intermolecular interactions and might be involved in the aggregation of Aβ. Moreover, two Cys residues in some Tau isoforms have been shown to be essential for Tau stabilization and its interaction with microtubules. Future research will show the complexities of Tau, its interactome, and the role that Cys residues play in the progression of AD. The specific modification of cysteinyl residues in redox signaling is also tightly connected to the regulation of various metabolic pathways. Many of these pathways have been found to be altered in AD, even at very early stages. In order to analyze the complex changes and underlying mechanisms, several AD models have been developed, including animal models, 2D and 3D cell culture, and ex-vivo studies of patient samples. The use of these models along with innovative, new redox analysis techniques are key to further understand the importance of the redox component in Alzheimer's disease and the identification of new therapeutic targets in the future.
Despite the extensive ongoing research, there still exist plenty of diseases whose mechanisms have not yet been fully understood, one such example being proteasome-related disorders. Over the last few years, an increasing number of studies have been initiated
to elucidate their driving pathophysiological mechanisms. Determining the systematic effects of genomic alterations occurring in genes encoding 19S proteasome subunits is a key to comprehend the molecular basis of syndromic intellectual disability (ID) pathogenesis and
the subsequent design of new targeted therapies. Therefore, the main objective of my research was to contribute to the identification of potential drivers of syndromic ID, and thereby pave the way for the development of new targeted therapy approaches. In this regard, my aim was to characterize tissue, proteomic and metabolomic changes in cells from patients with PSMC5 mutations and uncover a potential dysregulation of various biochemical and/or inflammatory pathways.
To this end, I undertook a comparative examination of control and patient T cells expanded from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). First, I assessed the proteasome composition in these samples (both in its denaturized and native form), by means of
SDS-PAGE, native PAGE and western-blotting. Moreover, I determined proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity by measure of Suc-LLVY-AMC peptidase activity assay. In addition, I analysed the activation status of the ER stress and mTOR pathway by RT-PCR and SDS-PAGE /western-blotting prior to a subsequent analysis of T-cell markers.
The data show that the investigated p.(Pro320Arg) and p.(Arg201Trp) de novo heterozygous missense mutations in the PSMC5 gene do not cause haploinsufficiency as the steady-state expression level of the PSMC5/Rpt6 full-length protein does not vary between control and patient cells. Further analysis of control and patient T cells under non-reducing conditions revealed that PSMC5/Rpt6 mutants were less efficiently incorporated into 26S proteasome complexes than their wild-type counterparts. The failure to assemble PSMC5/Rpt6 into fully mature proteasomes was associated with a reduced proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity in patient T cells, as determined by in-plate assays. These data unambiguously demonstrate that both of the p.(Pro320Arg) and p.(Arg201Trp) PSMC5 mutations identified in patients suffering from syndromic ID are loss-of-function mutations. Interestingly, my data further show that proteasome dysfunction in these patients was accompanied by abnormalities in mTOR signalling and T-cell differentiation, as determined by western-blotting and flow cytometry, respectively.
Altogether, our data identified for the first time PSMC5 as a disease-causing gene for
a syndromic form of ID. How proteasome dysfunction caused by PSMC5 variants contributes to disease pathogenesis, remains to be fully determined.