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Background: Demographic changes are leading to a rapid increase in the number and proportion of the elderly. This goes along with an increase of prevalence of age-associated illnesses, such as dementia. The prevalence of dementia is estimated to amount to 1.5 million in Germany. Up to three-quarter of the persons with dementia (PWD) were living in their own homes. In European countries, dementia is associated with substantial and increasing healthcare costs, which makes dementia one of the most expensive diseases in old age and a serious health care priority. Whereas analyses of total healthcare costs in dementia have been the focus of various cost-of-illness (COI) studies, so far little is known about several cost categories in detail. Firstly, detailed economic analyses of medication cost are currently still missing. Secondly, it is well known that dementia is under-diagnosed, but there is a lack of knowledge about the differences in resource utilization and its costs between dementia patients with and those without a formal dementia diagnosis. Finally, analyses that take the utilization and costs of professional formal and unpaid informal care as well as caregiver’s productivity losses into a consideration are currently missing. Objectives: (1) To determine medication cost, cost per drug and number of drugs taken and analyze their associated factors; to estimate the current price reduction of anti-dementia drugs due to implementation of low-priced generics. (2) To determine health care resource utilisation and costs of patients with a formal diagnosis and those without a formal diagnosis of dementia, and to analyse the association between having received a formal dementia diagnosis and health care costs (3) To determine the utilization and costs of formal and informal care for PwD, indirect costs because of productivity losses of caregivers and the associations between cost, socio-demographic and clinical variables. Methods: The present study is a cross-sectional analysis of health care resource utilization and health care cost of community-dwelling PWD in primary care. Analyses are based on primary data from the ongoing DelpHi-MV trial (Dementia: Life- and person-centered help in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany), a population-based, cluster-randomized, controlled intervention trial in the primary care setting (Clinical Trials gov. Identifier: NCT01401582). Eligible patients (older than 70 years, living at home) were screened in participating general practitioner practices for dementia using the DemTect. The utilization of healthcare resources was assessed within the baseline assessment at practitioner’s homes. Costs were calculated from the perspective of the statutory health insurance or the social perspective. Factors associated with healthcare cost were evaluated using multiple regression models. Results: (1) Medication cost and cost per drug were higher and the number of taken drugs lower in advanced stages of cognitive impairment. Prescription of anti-dementia generics could decrease overall medication cost by 28%. Medication cost was associated with number of diagnoses, deficits in activities of daily living and age. Dementia severity was related to cost per drug and number of drugs taken. (2) Patients formally diagnosed with dementia were treated significantly more often by a neurologist, but less often by all other outpatient specialists, and received anti-dementia drugs and day care more often. Diagnosed patients underwent shorter and less frequent planned in-hospital treatments. Dementia diagnosis was significantly associated with higher costs of anti-dementia drug treatment, but significantly associated with less total medical care costs, which valuated to be € 5,123 compared, to € 5,565 for undiagnosed patients. (3) Formal care were utilized less (26.3%) than informal care (85.1%), resulting in a cost ratio of one to ten (1,646 €; 16,473 €, respectively). In total, 29% of caregivers were employed, and every seventh (14.3%) experienced productivity losses, which corresponded to 1,258 € annually. Whereas increasing deficits in daily living activities were associated with higher formal and higher informal costs, living alone was significantly associated with higher formal care costs and the employment of a caregiver was associated with lower informal care costs. Conclusion: (1) Medication cost increases with the number of diagnoses and growing deficits in activities of daily living and decreases with age. Severely cognitively impaired persons are treated with a small number of high-priced drugs, which could suggest inadequate medication of multimorbid persons. (2) There are no significant differences in total health care cost between diagnosed and undiagnosed patients. Dementia diagnosis is beneficial for receiving cost-intensive anti-dementia drug treatments, but is currently insufficient to ensure adequate non-medication treatment for community-dwelling patients. (3) Informal care contributes the most to total care costs. Living alone is a major cost driver for formal costs because of the lower availability of potential informal care. The availability of informal care is limited and productivity losses are increased when a caregiver is employed.
Decades after international guidelines to approach Universal Health Coverage and Access for All to essential health care services have been formulated by the global community, social protection in health remains a major global challenge. This implies the devastating situation of having less than 15% of the global population benefiting of any kind of social protection in health, while more than 70% of the world population lacks any type of social protection coverage. 36 years after the famous and often-cited Alma-Ata Declaration proclaimed that „the promotion and protection of the health of the people is essential to sustained economic and social development and contributes to a better quality of life and to world peace”, people of the informal sector – which forms up to 90% of the population in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa – are still forced to take out loans or sell their assets to settle their hospital bills and in the end fall into poverty because of unbearable health care costs. While private health insurance schemes are mainly serving people living in urban areas and offer products and services that are not tailored to the needs of people of low-income from rural and/or remote areas, public social health insurance schemes are usually designed to serve the formal sector or are exclusively catering for public servants. At the same time, social protection in health is increasingly regarded to be a guarantor for development and economic growth of the national economy. In this context, some authors are convinced that community-based health financing is to be seen as a promising approach to insure parts of the population, which are normally excluded from any type of social protection in health, against catastrophic health care costs. With a focus on low-income people, Community-based Health Financing (CBHF) schemes offer products, processes and institutions that are tailored to the specific needs of their low-income target group, usually situated in the informal sector. In the aim to meet international standards and comply with the global development agenda, governments in sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly acknowledging the need to include the informal sector and people of low-income into their public health financing systems. As a result, innovative health systems evolved, which often comprise of hybrid sub-systems to cover various target groups of the society. While some governments – such as the governments of Rwanda, Ghana and Tanzania – have already implemented integrated national Social Health Insurance (SHI) systems that consider CBHF schemes to cover the informal sector, others are aiming at implementing this innovative idea in the near future, e.g. Burkina Faso and Togo. Given the above-illustrated situation, the overall research objective of this thesis is to explore the potential contribution of CBHF schemes towards Universal Health Coverage (UHC) in low- income countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, the specific research objectives are set as follows; (1) To establish common lessons learnt from low-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa which implemented integrative SHI systems by combining efforts of national SHI schemes and CBHF schemes, or which are in an advanced stage of designing and implementing the same. (2) To comprehensively analyze the Kenyan health financing system and design adequate interventions towards the design and implementation of an integrative national SHI scheme in Kenya which is favoring UHC. (3) To develop a standard model for implementing integrative SHI systems in low-income countries of sub-Saharan Africa and the world. This thesis will at first provide a comprehensive topical background containing evidence about different relevant concepts such as Development, Universal Health Coverage, Social Protection, Health Financing and Micro Health Insurance. On this basis, the potential of combining community-based and national efforts towards tailored health care financing at national level will be explored by analyzing strengths and weaknesses of both approaches and providing brief insights from low-income countries of sub-Sahara Africa in this area. Furthermore, a comprehensive background to common development initiatives as well as the social protection and health care financing sectors in Kenya is provided to introduce the case study of chapter four. In the third chapter, common efforts of governments and other stakeholders involved in health care financing in sub-Saharan African countries to integrate CBHI schemes into public SHI schemes will be reviewed and analyzed. In the scope of this review, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burkina Faso and Ghana will serve as practical country case examples. Based on this extensive cross-country analysis, common lessons learnt regarding the complex process of designing integrative SHI systems in low-income countries of sub-Saharan Africa will be presented. In chapter four, through a comprehensive country case study, the Kenyan health and health financing sector and its stakeholders will be analyzed regarding its potential towards UHC, aiming at the development of most promising interventions towards the design and implementation of an integrated SHI scheme in Kenya, considering CBHF schemes as one building block of the system. A multi-stage model as well as a multi-level structure of a national SHI system to approach UHC in Kenya will be outlined and presented. The thesis will be concluded in chapter five by transferring the Kenyan experience to a global level and suggesting a standard model for implementing integrated SHI schemes in similar contexts as given in Kenya and the presented case examples. In the conclusion, common opportunities and limitations of community-based approaches towards UHC are highlighted and a way forward for the Kenyan context is suggested.
Obwohl History Claims in Anzeigen eingesetzt werden, ist wenig darüber bekannt, welche History Claims eingesetzt werden und wie diese wirken. Daher untersucht diese Arbeit mithilfe einer Inhaltsanalyse, welche History Claims am häufigsten eingesetzt werden. Insgesamt sind 6.145 Anzeigen aus zwei Magazinen, welche einen Zeitraum von sechs Jahren umfassen, untersucht worden. Über acht Prozent der Anzeigen enthielten mindestens einen History Claim. Dies zeigt einen deutlichen Anstieg gegenüber Studien, die frühere Zeiträume untersucht haben. Markengeschichte Claims werden dabei häufiger verwendet als Geborgte Geschichte Claims. Eine empirische Untersuchung mit 515 Probanden weist die vertrauenssteigernde Wirkung von Markengeschichte Claims und Geborgte Geschichte Claims nach. Lediglich Markengeschichte Claims beeinflussen das Markenimage geringfügig positiv. Die betrachteten History Claims beeinflussen weder die Einstellungen der Probanden gegenüber der Anzeige, noch als wie altmodisch die Marke wahrgenommen wird. Zudem zeigen die Ergebnisse der Studie, dass die Kombination von Innovation Claim und Markengeschichte Claim in Anzeigen nicht vorteilhaft ist.
Zur Reduktion von Systemgrenzen und Insellösungen in der klinischen Forschung sowie zur integrierten Versorgung und Patienteneinbindung wurde mit der Health-Cloud ein holistisches Systemkonzept zur übergreifenden Zusammenarbeit der einzelnen Disziplinen erarbeitet. Anhand der Analyse heute gängiger Biobank-, Forschungs- und Versorgungssysteme sowie angrenzender Systeme der einzelnen Bereiche wurde ein neues ganzheitliches System konzipiert, das über heute „klassische“ Biobanken hinausgeht und ein globales Daten speichern und verarbeiten über alle Teilnehmer der Medizin ermöglichen soll. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der strukturierten Datenablage und Verarbeitung von Daten wie DNA Profile, Biomarker, Bildgebungsmaterial, klinische Chemie, Wareable-Daten, uvm. bis zur gezielten Bereitstellung nutzerzentrierter Frontend Applikationen. Eine zukünftige Erweiterbarkeit hinsichtlich Datenstrukturen sowie Funktionalität ist im Kernsystem verankert. Zur schnellen Datenverarbeitung kombiniert das System gezielt Festplattenspeicher sowie In-Memory Techniken, um ein effizientes Suchen und Abrufen von Daten zu ermöglichen. Anhand eines Trust Centers wird die Wahrung des länderspezifischen Datenschutzes sichergestellt. Anhand einer Metadatenstruktur zur Erzeugung neuer Objekte und Parameter kann das System um neue Datenattribute erweitert werden und durch eine dezentrale Vernetzung aller Knoten eine konsistente Synchronisation über das gesamte System sicherstellen.
Weltumspannende Krisen, die alle signifikanten Wirtschaftsnationen vollständig erfassen, sind eher selten. Vielmehr blieben in der Vergangenheit schwerwiegende Krisen überwiegend auf einen Staat oder Region begrenzt. Mit Ausbruch der Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise in den Vereinigten Staaten kam es zur sukzessiven Ansteckung entwickelter und aufstrebender Volkswirtschaften. Als Reaktion darauf senkte die US Zentralbank die Federal Fund Rate von 4,75% im September 2007 auf 0-0,25% im Dezember 2008. Zur Unterstützung konventioneller geldpolitischer Maßnahmen wurde in den USA verstärkt auf Forward Guidance und zusätzlich das Large Scale Asset Purchase Program als unkonventionelle Maßnahme gesetzt. In ähnlicher Weise reagierten die Zentralbanken des europäischen Währungsraums, Großbritanniens und Japans. Während die expansive Geldpolitik in den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften eine sukzessive Zinssenkung bis zum jetzigen Niedrigzinsniveau auslöste, blieb in den Schwellenländern der G20 das Zinsniveau zunächst unverändert und resultierte in einem Anstieg der Zinsdifferenz zwischen den Ländergruppen. Infolgedessen verstärkten Investoren aus den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften bei der Suche nach zinstragenden Aktiva ihr Engagement in den Schwellenländern der G 20. Gleichzeitig veränderte sich als Reaktion auf die Finanzkrise die Risikowahrnehmung der Investoren aus entwickelten Volkswirtschaften auf unerwartete Informationen und negative Preisentwicklungen. Eine Umkehr der Zinsentwicklung in Verbindung mit einer Stagnation bzw. Rezession in den entwickelten Volkswirtschaften kann Kapitalabzug aus den Schwellenländern der G 20 auslösen. Der Einsatz von weitreichenden Kapitalverkehrskontrollen zur Abschwächung oder Verhinderung des Kapitalabzuges durch die betroffenen Staaten kann aufgrund krisenbedingter Preisverfälle zu schweren Verlusten der Investoren und erhebliche Auswirkungen auf die Finanzmärkte der entwickelten Volkswirtschaften besitzen.
Hintergrund: Der Begriff ‚Systemmedizin‘ (SM) prägt seit einigen Jahren die Diskussion um die zukünftige Gesundheitsversorgung. Fallen durch den Einsatz der Systemmedizin jedoch Kosten an, die nicht durch entsprechende Erlöse gedeckt werden können, wird sie ohne externe Anreize kaum zum Standard werden können. Um eine Aussage zu einer potentiell ökonomischen Vorteilhaftigkeit systemmedizinischer Ansätze treffen zu können, ist es daher nötig, die entstehenden Kosten und mögliche Erlöse zu identifizieren. Weiterhin wird erwartetet, dass es auch zur Zunahme von sogenannten Zusatzbefunden kommt, die ebenfalls ökonomische Konsequenzen entfalten können.
Methodik: Primäres Ziel ist daher die Ermittlung von Kosten und Erlösen systemmedizinischer Ansätze und das Auftreten von Zusatzbefunden für ausgewählte Diagnostiken zu ermitteln (Ganzkörper-CT, Depressionsdiagnostik, Whole Genome/Exome Sequencing), um hieraus Implikationen für eine gegebenenfalls notwendige Anpassung der Finanzierung medizinischer Leistungen abzuleiten.
Ergebnisse: Der Begriff ‚Systemmedizin‘ existiert derzeit nicht, vielmehr vereint sich hinter diesem Wort eine Vielzahl von Maßnahmen, die das gemeinsame Ziel einer besseren Gesundheitsversorgung verfolgen und zumindest in Teilen eine Fortführung der Individualisierten oder Personalisierten Medizin darstellen. Die gesetzlichen Krankenversicherungen, als wichtige Entscheidungsträger bei der Innovationsadoption im Gesundheitswesen, sehen in der Systemmedizin ein gewisses Potential zu einer verbesserten und effizienteren Erkennung, Behandlung und Therapie von Krankheiten, betonen jedoch den weitestgehend ausstehenden, evidenzbasierten Nutzennachweis. Solang dieser Nachweis aussteht, stellt sich für die GKV die Frage nach einer Erstattung solcher Leistungen grundsätzlich nicht. Die Kosten- und Erlösanalysen der untersuchten Diagnostiken konnten jedoch zeigen, dass genau diese Anpassung der Erstattung medizinischer Leistungen erforderlich wäre, um zukünftig systemmedizinische Maßnahmen zu finanzieren. Dies wird durch die Problematik von erwarteten Zusatzbefunden verstärkt.
Diskussion: Die Adoption einer umfassenden Systemmedizin als neue Standardlösung scheint zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt nicht realistisch, wenngleich die Anwendung ausgewählter Maßnahmen mit systemmedizinischem Charakter durch die Einbindung von Big Data in den klinischen Alltag mittelfristig möglich scheint. Zur Umsetzung einer Systemmedizin bedarf es in erster Linie weiterer Forschungs- und Überzeugungsarbeit zum Nutzennachweis, weitere gesundheitsökonomische Kosten- und Nutzenanalysen, hohe Investitionen für notwendige IT-Infrastrukturen und nicht zuletzt eine gesellschaftliche Debatte zum Umgang mit zukünftigen Krankheitsrisiken.
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of culture on consumers’ attitudes toward Cause-Related marketing between Iran and Germany by answering the following questions:
A: What is consumer’s response concerning (1) skepticism toward CRM claim (2) attitude toward the CRM strategy, (3) attitude toward CRM brand personality, (4) attitude toward the CRM brand image and (5) CRM purchase intention (6) Warm glow? ; B: Do consumers respond differently to Cause-Related Marketing in Iran in comparison to Germany? C: Can cultural characteristics of the countries explain these differences? To answer the research questions, hypotheses were developed based on the literature which shape the research framework, in total containing 17 hypotheses. The data was gathered by questionnaire to make the research quantitative. By using convenience sampling, 564 responses were generated. The data was analysed by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and independent student t-test. Potential differences between Iran and Germany as well as moderation analysis are tested by critical ratio difference test as well as chi-square difference test using multiple- group analysis in AMOS. The results showed the importance of culture in applying CRM strategy. It can be said that CRM in a collectivistic culture like Iran can be successful as well as individualistic country like Germany. Although Iranian consumers were less familiar with this strategy, the benefits of CRM were similar in case of brand image and higher for purchase intention. The research found that emotions play a stronger role in Iran and it is more critical to evoke proper emotions by CRM campaign.
Purpose: To assess the comparative efficacy and the long-term cost-utility of alternative minimally invasive glaucoma surgeries (MIGSs) when combined with cataract surgery in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG).
Methods: Treatment effects, as measured by the 1-year reduction in intraocular pressure (IOP), were estimated with an adjusted indirect treatment comparison. Evidence from randomized clinical trials was identified for four different MIGS methods. A disease-transition model was developed by capturing clinically relevant POAG stages and the expected natural disease evolution. Outcomes of the disease-transition model were the comparative utility [quality-adjusted life years (QALYs)], cost and cost-utility of included strategies in a lifetime horizon.
Results: Estimated 1-year IOP reductions were: cataract surgery - 2.05 mmHg (95% CI - 3.38; - 0.72), one trabecular micro-bypass stent - 3.15 mmHg (95% CI - 5.66; - 0.64), two trabecular micro-bypass stents - 4.85 mmHg (95% CI - 7.71; - 1.99) and intracanalicular scaffold - 2.25 mmHg (95% CI - 4.87; 0.37). Discounted outcomes from the disease-transition model appraised the strategy of two trabecular micro-bypass stents with cataract surgery in the moderate POAG stage as the one providing the greatest added value, with 10,955€ per additional QALY. Improved outcomes were seen when assessing MIGS in the moderate POAG stage.
Conclusions: When indirectly comparing alternative MIGS methods combined with cataract surgery, the option of two trabecular micro-bypass stents showed both a superior efficacy and long-term cost-utility from a German perspective. Moreover, outcomes of the disease-transition model suggest POAG patients to beneficiate the most from an earlier intervention in the moderate stage contrary to waiting until an advanced disease is present.