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Haloalkanes are serious environmental pollutants commonly employed as pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. Although haloalkane production is performed mostly in the chemical industry, it also occurs naturally, mostly enzymatically (halide methyltransferases and haloperoxidases). Elimination of toxic haloalkanes is very important and using haloalkane dehalogenases is a promising and environmentally friendly way to achieve this.[53] Therefore, assays are needed for detecting dehalogenase activity either to find new enzymes or to generate laboratory-evolved variants. In this thesis, a new assay for dehalogenase activity was developed based on halide detection. In this assay halides, as dehalogenase products, are oxidized under mild conditions using the vanadium-dependent chloroperoxidase from Curvularia inaequalis, forming hypohalous acids that are detected using aminophenyl fluorescein.[53] This new halide oxidation assay is much more sensitive than previously known assays, with detection limits of 20 nM for bromide and 1 μM for chloride and iodide. Validation of the assay was done by comparison to a well-established GC-MS method in terms of determining the specific activities of two dehalogenases towards five common substrates (Figure 5).
The HOX assay was modified for iodide-specific detection by using two other dyes, o-phenylenediamine (OPD) and 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TBM), instead of APF. Also, selective bromide detection in the presence of the common contaminant chloride was achieved by using a bromoperoxidase. Since the assay relies on halide detection, it is possible to use it for other halide-producing enzymes (Section 8.1). For example, the TMB-modified version was used for screening of halide methyltransferase libraries towards various alkyl iodides.[166] Furthermore, the HOX assay was used to identify promiscuous dehalogenase activity of the epoxide hydrolase CorEH from Corynebacterium sp. C12.[105]
Moreover, studies showed that the HOX assay could be used with in-vitro synthesized protein. Selected dehalogenases, DhlA, DhaA, and DmmA, were synthesized in vitro and used in the assay; the product formation was also validated using GC-MS. In conclusion, the HOX assay can be used with purified protein, whole cells, or in vitro synthesized proteins.
The HOX assay application in microfluidic droplets was investigated since an ultra-high-throughput assay for haloalkane dehalogenases is needed. This investigation showed no leakage of reaction components and products in the short term (~24 h), based on tests done on water-in-oil droplets generated by microfluidic chips. Even though 20 μM droplets were not working, 70 μM droplets were successful for assay implementation. Since the Damborsky group in Brno (CZ) and the deMello group in Zürich (CH), have large dehalogenase libraries and more experience in microfluidics, respectively, we collaborated with these groups to finalize implementation of the assay in an ultrahigh-throughput format. Since the studies are ongoing, final results could not yet be shown in this thesis. However, it can be noted that the issue with 20 μm droplets has been sorted out since our collaborators in Brno noticed that the low fluorescence of the droplets is actually caused by excessive accumulation of fluorescein, which is self-quenching, resulting in low fluorescence once the concentration exceeds 1 μM. By lowering the APF concentration they could optimize the maximum amount of fluorescein formed, and a mutant library has now been successfully screened by our collaborators at the ETH. The last topic of the thesis was an investigation of converting an epoxide hydrolase into a haloalkane dehalogenase. These studies focused on increasing the minor dehalogenase activity of two previously identified epoxide hydrolase (Cif) variants. These Cif variants hardly led to soluble proteins, the PROSS algorithm was used to increase soluble expression. New variants of Cif were generated using a 3DM analysis and the PROSS[164] design. The activities of these variants were determined with the newly developed HOX assay in a whole-cell format. Cif23 E153N-H269D and the PROSS D7 E153N-H269D variant, were found being active against 1,2-dibromoethane. Since the determination of enzyme concentration was hard to measure due to the expression/purification problem, specific activities could not be determined. To solve this problem, a HiBiT-tag was added to the selected variants for determining soluble expression. However, the planned studies could not be completed because of a lack of time and will form the basis for a future study.
Enzymatic evolution and the corresponding relationship to substrate scope and catalytic promiscuity were targeted in this thesis. As enzyme examples, pig liver esterase (PLE), oleate hydratases and linoleate isomerases, as well as epoxide hydrolases (EH) and haloalkane dehalogenases (HLD) were used. The substrate scope and the enantiopreference of PLE was analyzed by molecular modeling and substrate docking, since different enantiomeric excesses were detected for the conversion of malonate diethyl esters, depending on the PLE isoenzyme. Additionally, fatty acid converting enzymes with high identity were found and analyzed to comprehend the switch of both activities. Furthermore, the evolutionary connection between EH and HLD was investigated by interconversion studies to implement an HLD acitivity in an EH. By directed evolution and rational design, both possibilities of protein engineering were realized. Finally, a new methodology for targeted, continuous in vivo evolution was established by a temperature-dependent mutagenesis frequency.
Enzyme sind bekannt als Biokatalysatoren, die spezifisch für ein oder wenige Substrate und ihre zu katalysierende Reaktion sind. Die Fähigkeit einiger Enzyme, mehr als nur eine bestimmte chemische Umsetzung zu katalysieren, bezeichnet man als Promiskuität. Einige Enzyme verfügen über ein breites Substratspektrum und können selbst strukturell verschiedene Substrate umsetzen. Man spricht hierbei von der Substratpromiskuität (substrate promiscuity) der Enzyme. Eine weitere Klasse der Promiskuität wird als Konditionspromiskuität (condition promiscuity) bezeichnet. Hierzu zählen Enzyme, die auch bei nicht-natürlichen Reaktionsbedingungen wie hohen Temperaturen, extremen pH-Werten oder in wasserfreiem Medium katalytische Aktivität aufweisen. Die katalytische Promiskuität (catalytic promiscuity) bildet die dritte Gruppe der Enzympromiskuität. Enzyme, die über diese Art der Promiskuität verfügen, zeichnen sich durch eine breite Reaktionsspezifität bei der Katalyse alternativer Reaktionen aus. Zudem lehren uns die Strukturen von über 30.000 Proteinen, dass die Natur nur von einem limitierten Repertoire von Proteingerüsten Gebrauch gemacht hat, um dennoch eine Vielzahl an verschiedensten Reaktionen herbeizuführen. Die Vielfältigkeit der Proteingerüste ist auf einige wenige Vorfahren zurückzuführen, deren Gerüst als Basis zur Generierung von Familien und Superfamilien diente. Die Überreste dieses Prozesses spiegeln sich in den ähnlichen Strukturen und katalytischen Resten der Familienmitglieder wieder. Über die Millionen von Jahren der Evolution haben sich jedoch die Sequenzähnlichkeiten der Mitglieder einer Familie stark verändert. Durch die Untersuchung der Beziehungen von Enzymen mit α/β-Hydrolasefaltung am Beispiel der Generierung von Epoxidhydrolaseaktivität in das Proteingerüst der Pseudomonas fluorescens Esterase (PFE) sollte die verwandtschaftliche Beziehung beider Enzyme näher dargestellt werden. Mit Hilfe der Methoden der positionsgerichteten Mutagenese und der gerichteten Evolution war es möglich eine Vielzahl von Mutanten zu kreieren. Zur Durchmusterung der Mutantenbliotheken kam sowohl ein neu entwickelter Agarplatten-Assay, als auch ein optimiertes Hochdurchsatz-Testsystem zum Einsatz. Mittels dieser Testformate konnten Mutanten der PFE identifiziert werden, die aktiv gegenüber Epoxiden sind. Des Weiteren erfolgte die genaue Charakterisierung der generierten Varianten.