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Chagas’ disease (CD), caused by the hemoflagellate protozoan, Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in most countries of Latin America. Heart failure (HF) is often a late manifestation of chronic CD, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Inflammatory processes mediated by cytokines play a key role in the pathogenesis and progression of CD. Keeping in view the inflammatory nature of CD, this study investigated the possible role of 21 different inflammatory cytokines as biomarkers for prediction and prognosis of CD. The plasma concentration of these cytokines was measured in a group of patients with CD (n = 94), and then compared with those measured in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) from idiopathic causes (n = 48), and with control subjects (n = 25). Monovariately, plasma levels of cytokines such as stem cell growth factor beta (SCGF beta), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), monokine induced by interferon gamma (CXCL9), and macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF) were significantly increased in CD patients with advanced HF compared to control group. None of the cytokines could demonstrate any prognostic potency in CD patients, and only MIF and stromal derived factor-1 alpha (CXCL12) showed significance in predicting mortality and necessity for heart transplant in DCM patients. However, multivariate analysis prognosticated a large proportion of CD and DCM patients. In CD patients, HGF and Interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40) together separated 81.9% of 3-year survivors from the deceased, while in DCM patients, CXCL12, stem cell factor (SCF), and CXCL9 together discriminated 77.1% of survivors from the deceased. The significant increase in plasma concentrations of cytokines such as HGF and CXCL9 in CD patients, and the ability of these cytokines to prognosticate a large proportion of CD and DCM patients multivariately, encourages further studies to clarify the diagnostic and prognostic potential of cytokines in such patients.
The human pathogen Clostridioides difficile has evolved into the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea. The bacterium is capable of spore formation, which even allows survival of antibiotic treatment. Although C. difficile features an anaerobic lifestyle, we determined a remarkably high oxygen tolerance of the laboratory reference strain 630Δerm. A mutation of a single nucleotide (single nucleotide polymorphism [SNP]) in the DNA sequence (A to G) of the gene encoding the regulatory protein PerR results in an amino acid substitution (Thr to Ala) in one of the helices of the helix-turn-helix DNA binding domain of this transcriptional repressor in C. difficile 630Δerm. PerR is a sensor protein for hydrogen peroxide and controls the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. We show that PerR of C. difficile 630Δerm has lost its ability to bind the promoter region of PerR-controlled genes. This results in a constitutive derepression of genes encoding oxidative stress proteins such as a rubrerythrin (rbr1) whose mRNA abundance under anaerobic conditions was increased by a factor of about 7 compared to its parental strain C. difficile 630. Rubrerythrin repression in strain 630Δerm could be restored by the introduction of PerR from strain 630. The permanent oxidative stress response of C. difficile 630Δerm observed here should be considered in physiological and pathophysiological investigations based on this widely used model strain.
IMPORTANCE The intestinal pathogen Clostridioides difficile is one of the major challenges in medical facilities nowadays. In order to better combat the bacterium, detailed knowledge of its physiology is mandatory. C. difficile strain 630Δerm was generated in a laboratory from the patient-isolated strain C. difficile 630 and represents a reference strain for many researchers in the field, serving as the basis for the construction of insertional gene knockout mutants. In our work, we demonstrate that this strain is characterized by an uncontrolled oxidative stress response as a result of a single-base-pair substitution in the sequence of a transcriptional regulator. C. difficile researchers working with model strain 630Δerm should be aware of this permanent stress response.
Vitamin B6 deficiency during pregnancy translates into a severe vitamin B6 deficiency (plasma levels decreased by 97%) in new-born rats. Further, hallmarks are increased (+89%) concentrations of homocysteine, gross changes in gene methylation and expression, and metabolic alterations including lipid metabolism. This study focuses on determining the effects of vitamin B6-deficiency on cardiolipin composition and oxidative phosphorylation in liver. For this purpose, hepatic cardiolipin composition was analyzed by means of LC/MS/MS, and mitochondrial oxygen consumption was determined by using a Clark-type electrode in a rat model of vitamin B6 deficiency. Liver mitochondria from new-born rats with pre-term vitamin B6 deficiency responded with substantial alterations in cardiolipin composition that include the following changes in the amounts of cardiolipin incorporated fatty acids: increase in C16, decrease in C18, decrease in saturated fatty acid, as well as increase in amount of oxidized cardiolipin species. These changes were accompanied by significantly decreased capacity of oxidative phosphorylation. In conclusion, vitamin B6 deficiency in new born rats induces massive alterations of cardiolipin composition and function of liver mitochondria. These findings support the importance of sufficient periconceptional supply of vitamin B6 to prevent vitamin B6 deficiency.
Impact statement
Vitamin B6 (VitB6) is an active co-enzyme for more than 150 enzymes and is required for a great diversity of biosynthesis and metabolic reactions. There is an increased need for VitB6 during pregnancy and sufficient supply of VitB6 is crucial for the prevention of cleft palate and neural tube defects. We show that liver mitochondria from new-born rats with pre-term VitB6 deficiency respond with substantial alterations in cardiolipin (CL) composition and in the amount of oxidized CL species. These changes are associated with a decrease in the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation. The results of this study support the significance of sufficient supply of VitB6 during pregnancy (and periconceptional) for diminishing the number of early abortions and minimizing malformation. The established link between VitB6 deficiency, CL composition, and mitochondrial respiration/energy production provides mechanistic insight as to how the VitB6 deficiency translates into the known pathophysiological and clinically relevant conditions.
Zusammenfassung
Im Rahmen immunologischer Erkrankungen, wie Autoimmun- oder inflammatorischer Erkrankungen, Erkrankungen des zentralen Nervensystems oder Krebserkrankungen spielen Peptidasen eine wichtige Rolle [1, 2]. Die Exopeptidasen Membran-Alanyl-Aminopeptidase N (APN/CD13) und Dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DP IV/CD26) sind essentiell für die Regulation vieler biologischer Prozesse, insbesondere für die Autoimmunität und die Inflammation [3-5]. Literaturdaten und Vorarbeiten verschiedener Arbeitsgruppen belegen immunmodulatorische Eigenschaften von Inhibitoren der enzymatischen Aktivität der APN. Sowohl in vitro als auch in verschiedenen Krankheitsmodellen der Maus in vivo, zeigten sich therapeutisch relevante immunsuppressive Effekte dieser Inhibitoren [7, 11]. Mechanistisch liegen diesen positiven Wirkungen unter anderem eine Hemmung der Produktion und Sekretion proinflammatorischer Zytokine, sowie die Verstärkung der Produktion und Sekretion immunsuppressiver Zytokine zu Grunde [5]. Die Inhibitoren scheinen auch einen immunmodulatorischen Einfluss auf den Wnt Signalweg zu haben, der als Signaltransduktionsweg wichtige Aufgaben in der Regulation von Zellmigration, Polarität, interzellulärer Kontakte und für die frühe Embryonalentwicklung übernimmt [47]. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde sowohl der Einfluss verschiedener Inhibitoren der APN als auch des genetischen CD13-Knockouts in Mäusen auf die Aktivierung verschiedener Mikrogliazellpopulationen und auf die Expression von Komponenten des Wnt Signalweges untersucht. In Abhängigkeit von der Aktivierung war sowohl eine gesteigerte Expression proinflammatorischer Zytokine, als auch eine Hemmung der Komponenten des Wnt Signalweges in BV2 Mikrogliazellen zu beobachten. In BV2 Mikrogliazellen konnten keine signifikanten Einflüsse durch die Inhibitoren A1.002 und IP10.C9 detektiert werden. Lediglich durch den CD13-Antikörper My 7 konnten immunsuppressive Effekte in aktivierten BV2 Mikrgoliazellen beobachtet werden. In CD13-Knockout Mäusen konnte eine signifikante Reduktion der Wnt 10b positiven Mikrogliazellen gezeigt werden. In der Zusammenschau aller Ergebnisse lassen sich regulatorische Zusammenhänge zwischen der Aktivität der Mikrogliazellen, sowie der APN und dem Wnt Signalweg aufzeigen. Daher erscheinen weiterführende Analysen in primären isolierten Mikrogliazellen sinnvoll, um die Bedeutung von Inhibitoren der APN in neuronalen Zellen zu ermitteln. Dabei spielen nicht nur die Inhibitoren selbst, sondern auch deren Inkubationsbedingungen im Verhältnis zur LPS-vermittelten Zellaktivierung eine entscheidende Rolle.
Survival, development, and function of cells depend on numerous signaling pathways or-
chestrating the response to external and internal stimuli. Besides the well-established signaling through reversible phosphorylation, the concept of specific, spatio-temporal redox modifi-
cations of protein cysteinyl and methionyl side chains that regulate the biological function of these proteins is supported by an overwhelming amount of data. Although the specific reduction of protein redox modifications has been studied intensively, the oxidation of protein side chains was thought to be a result of so-called ‘oxidative stress’. However, this term has been increasingly challenged, since signaling pathways depend on specific, spatio-temporal oxidation of target proteins, most likely catalyzed by specific enzymes. The discovery of MICAL (molecule interacting with CasL) proteins evinced
the first examples of specific oxidases in signal transduction in the redox regulation of cellular functions.As part of the semaphorin signaling pathway, MICAL proteins were characterized to stereospecifically oxidize methionyl residues in actin, thereby regulating actin deolymerization, a process important in neurogenesis and cell migration. This oxidation can be reversed by the specific methionine-R-sulfoxide eductase B1. Besides the regulation of actin dynamics, MICALs are involved in the regulation of cell proliferation and
apoptosis, and the production of hydrogen peroxide may qualify them as specific oxidases also for cysteinyl residues.
Vorhofflimmern (VHF) ist die häufigste Herzrhythmusstörung im Erwachsenenalter. In den kommenden Jahren und Jahrzehnten werden die Prävalenz und Inzidenz von Vorhofflimmern weiter zunehmen. Die VHF-assoziierten Pathomechanismen sind nicht vollständig geklärt. Derzeitige Therapieansätze sind oft nur zeitlich begrenzt wirksam, mit starken Nebenwirkungen behaftet und können aktuelle Beschwerden der Patienten zwar eindämmen, ein Fortschreiten der Krankheit aber nicht aufhalten. Daher ist es notwendig, weitere Untersuchungen auf Ebene der Zellregulation und Zellkommunikation zu fördern, um das Wissen über Entwicklung, Progression und Reversibilität von VHF-assoziierten Remodeling-Prozessen zu erweitern und neue therapeutische Interventionspunkte zu identifizieren.
VHF-induzierte atriale Remodeling-Prozesse werden maßgeblich und zum Teil ursächlich durch reversible Veränderungen der Protein-Phosphorylierung verursacht. In vorherigen Arbeiten des Labors konnten bereits im Rahmen von Phosphoproteom-Analysen Proteine in HL-1 Zellen detektiert werden, die nach Rapid Pacing (RP) auffällig differentiell reguliert waren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit erfolgte die Analyse und Verifizierung dieser Proteine nach kontinuierlichem und Intervall-RP von HL-1 Zellen auf mRNA- und Proteinebene. Der Vergleich der im HL-1-Modell erhaltenen Daten mit denen, die aus atrialem Gewebe von Patienten in SR und VHF gewonnen wurden, soll Rückschlüsse auf klinisch und therapeutisch potenziell relevante Signalwege und Pathomechanismen bei VHF geben. Es stellte sich heraus, dass RP keinen Einfluss auf die mRNA-Expression von DDR2, OBSCN, SGK223, MARK2 und eingeschränkt auf JPH2 und GPX1 in HL-1 Zellen hatte. Lediglich nach Intervall-RP war die mRNA-Menge von JPH2 erhöht und von GPX1 reduziert. Sowohl nach kontinuierlichem als auch nach Intervall-RP war die Genexpression der Proteine SNIP1 und SBK2 stark reduziert. Gleichzeitig stellte sich eine ebenso stark reduzierte SBK2 Proteinexpression sowohl in den HL-1 Zellen als auch im humanen Vorhofgewebe bei VHF dar. In der immunhistochemischen Untersuchung atrialer Gewebeschnitte präsentierte sich SBK2 im Zytoplasma, entlang der Zellmembran und vesikelartig im perinukleären Raum der humanen Kardiomyozyten. RP und VHF hatten keinen Einfluss auf die Gen- und Proteinexpression von MARK2 in den HL-1 Zellen und im humanen Vorhofgewebe. In der Untersuchung der Protein-Phosphorylierung von MARK2 an Thr208 ergaben sich allerdings Diskrepanzen zwischen den murinen und humanen Zellen. Mithilfe der Immunfluoreszenz wurde in den humanen Kardiomyozyten für MARK2 eine regelmäßige Anordnung in longitudinaler Ausrichtung und zwischen den Z-Linien nachgewiesen. Eine VHF-abhängige durch Phosphorylierung vermittelte subzelluläre Translokation von MARK2 konnte ausgeschlossen werden. Diese RP-assoziierten Veränderungen im Phosphoproteom sind am atrialen Remodeling, bei der Erhöhung des oxidativen Stresses und der Aktivierung des TGF-β- und NF-κB-Signalwegs involviert. Des Weiteren wird ein Zusammenhang zwischen MARK2 und dem Wnt-Signalweg vermutet.
In weiterführenden Arbeiten sollten Untersuchungen der spezifischen Effekte von Protein-Phosphorylierungen und der Protein-Protein-Interaktionen erfolgen. Da zu den kardialen Funktionen von SBK2 keine Daten vorliegen, könnten mithilfe des Knock-outs von SBK2 (Knock-out Maus oder CRISPR-Cas9 Knock-out in HL-1 Zellen) grundlegende Aussagen zu dessen Rolle im gesunden Herzen oder bei VHF erhalten werden.
Despite their very close structural similarity, CxxC/S-type (class I) glutaredoxins (Grxs) actas oxidoreductases, while CGFS-type (class II) Grxs act as FeS cluster transferases. Here weshow that the key determinant of Grx function is a distinct loop structure adjacent to theactive site. Engineering of a CxxC/S-type Grx with a CGFS-type loop switched its functionfrom oxidoreductase to FeS transferase. Engineering of a CGFS-type Grx with a CxxC/S-typeloop abolished FeS transferase activity and activated the oxidative half reaction of the oxi-doreductase. The reductive half-reaction, requiring the interaction with a second GSHmolecule, was enabled by switching additional residues in the active site. We explain howsubtle structural differences, mostly depending on the structure of one particular loop, act inconcert to determine Grx function.
The failure of insulin-producingβ-cells is the underlying cause of hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus.β-cell decay has been linked to hypoxia, chronic inflammation,and oxidative stress. Thioredoxin (Trx) proteins are major actors in redox signaling and essential for signal transduction and the cellular stress response. We haveanalyzed the cytosolic, mitochondrial, and extracellular Trx system proteins in hypoxic and cytokine-induced stress usingβ-cell culture, isolated pancreatic islets, andpancreatic islet transplantation modelling low oxygen supply.Protein levels of cytosolic Trx1 and Trx reductase (TrxR) 1 significantly decreased, while mitochondrial Trx2 and TrxR2 increased upon hypoxia and reox-ygenation. Interestingly, Trx1 was secreted byβ-cells during hypoxia. Moreover, murine and human pancreatic islet grafts released Trx1 upon glucose stimulation.Survival of transplanted islets was substantially impaired by the TrxR inhibitor auranofin.Since a release was prominent upon hypoxia, putative paracrine effects of Trx1 onβ-cells were examined. In fact, exogenously added recombinant hTrx1 mitigatedapoptosis and preserved glucose sensitivity in pancreatic islets subjected to hypoxia and inflammatory stimuli, dependent on its redox activity. Human subjects werestudied, demonstrating a transient increase in extracellular Trx1 in serum after glucose challenge. This increase correlated with better pancreatic islet function.Moreover, hTrx1 inhibited the migration of primary murine macrophages.In conclusion, our study offers evidence for paracrine functions of extracellular Trx1 that improve the survival and function of pancreaticβ-cells.