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Until today, more than 100 years after its first description in Italy, the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has not lost its fearsome character for wild birds, poultry and humans. On the contrary, the number of outbreaks with high casualty rates in wild birds and poultry has multiplied in recent years and cases of zoonotic infections are also increasingly reported from HPAI endemic areas. The epidemiology of these infections is complex and also involves surface water and possibly sediments of shallow standing waters, which could play a role as a vector medium and/or virus reservoir. The goal of this project was to expand current knowledge of the influence of water on the spread of AIV. As part of this project, we were able to ...
1. ...improve AIV detection methods using real time RT-PCR in terms of sensitivity and breadth of viruses detected. In addition, we succeeded in economizing the procedure so that fewer resources are required and results are obtained faster (publication I: [173]).
2. ...develop an ultrafiltration-based enrichment method for AIV from surface water and evaluate it with field samples from HPAI outbreak areas in wild bird habitats (Wadden Sea coast of Schleswig-Holstein) and previously unaffected regions (Antarctic Weddell Sea) (publication II: [174]). Furthermore, protocols for testing different environmental sample matrices for AIV screening were tested and compared to results of passive monitoring by dabbing diseased or dead wild birds. AIV was detected in more than half (61%) of 44 water samples. We received additional sediment samples from 36 of the 44 water samples. In 18 of 36 of the sediments tested, as well as in 4.16% of 1705 fecal samples tested AIV was detected. However, the studies of the environmental samples mostly yielded only generic AIV detections, with viral loads in the range of the detection limit. This massively hampered further investigations for sub- and pathotyping. In contrast, 79.41% of 68 samples from passive monitoring showed high to very high HPAIV viral loads which also allowed sub- and pathotyping.
3. ...demonstrate in animal experiments that even very low titers (0.1 TCID50 ml-1) of HPAI viral infectivity in water can induce productive infection in susceptible but clinically largely resistant mallard ducks (publication III: [175]). Furthermore, we were able to develop evidence that there is a difference in virus spread that depends on the type of (contaminated) water source. This means that infections on poultry farms with inverted or nipple drinkers may follow a different course than infections in the wild, which are mediated via larger surface waters.
Overall, the results of this project highlight the important role of surface and drinking water, as well as aquatic sediments, in the spread of AIV. The methods developed here for AIV detection extend the possibilities for surveillance of AIV infections; however, passive remains superior to active surveillance of HPAIV infections in several aspects. Examination of various environmental samples did not yield a significant advantage in terms of an early warning system that would indicate the presence or spread of HPAIV in wild bird habitats prior to the occurrence of lethal infections in wild birds.
Hochpathogene aviäre Influenza-Viren (HPAIV) entstehen aus niedrig pathogenen aviären Influenza-Viren (LPAIV) durch die Erlangung einer polybasischen Spaltstelle im Hämagglutinin (HA). Diese gilt als Hauptvirulenzdeterminante. Durch die polybasische Spaltstelle kann das HA-Vorläuferprotein ubiquitär durch Subtilisin- ähnliche Proteasen gespalten werden, was zu einer systemischen Infektion führt. Bis jetzt sind in der Natur nur HPAIV der Serotypen H5 und H7 bekannt. Es ist noch unklar, ob die Umgebung der HA-Spaltstelle in der Evolution zum HPAIV angepasst werden muss, oder ob HA vom Serotyp H5 die polybasische HA-Spaltstelle besonders schnell erwerben können und ob die artifizielle Einführung einer polybasischen HA-Spaltstelle in verschiedene LPAIV HA-Serotypen zu einem hochpathogenen Phänotyp führt. Diese drei Fragestellungen wurden in separaten Projekten in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht. Vergleiche der HA-Spaltstellenumgebungen zeigten, dass die meisten HPAIV H5- Isolate entweder Serin oder Threonin an Position 323 (H3-Nummerierung) des HA tragen. LPAIV H5-Isolate besitzen dagegen an der korrespondierenden Stelle Valin. Darüber hinaus weisen die meisten LPAIV H5 an Position P2 der HA-Spaltstelle ein Threonin auf. Daher wurde der Einfluss dieser beiden Positionen auf die Virulenz untersucht. Hierzu wurden monobasische und polybasische HA-Spaltstellenmutanten des HPAIV A/Swan/Germany/R65/02 H5N1 (H5/R65) mit Hilfe der reversen Genetik hergestellt. In den in vitro Untersuchungen zeigten alle monobasischen HA-Spaltstellenmutanten den erwarteten Phänotyp eines LPAIV. Beim Wachstumsverhalten führte allerdings Serin zu einer effizienteren frühen Replikation. Außerdem scheint das HA-Spaltmotiv E-R!G, welches bisher in keinem LPAIV H5 gefunden wurde, einen Nachteil gegenüber dem HA-Spaltstellenmotiv E-T-R!G zu haben, welches bei LPAIV H5- Isolaten fast ausschließlich zu finden ist. Dieser Nachteil kann allerdings durch den Austausch von Valin 323 zu Serin aufgehoben werden. Im Gegensatz dazu führte der Austausch von Serin 323 zu Valin im HPAIV H5/R65 zu keinen Unterschieden in vitro. In vivo zeigten mit H5/R65-V infizierte Hühner aber ein verlängertes Überleben. Daher ist anzunehmen, dass Serin an Position 323 zur Virulenz im Huhn beiträgt. Die Evolution vom LPAIV Vorläufer zum HPAIV scheint nicht nur den Erwerb der polybasischen HA-Spaltstelle zu benötigen sondern auch die Veränderung von Regionen außerhalb der Spaltstelle. Um zu untersuchen, ob auch andere LPAIV außer H5 und H7 in der Lage sind, polybasische HA-Spaltstellen zu erwerben, wurden Selektionsversuche durchgeführt. Die HA verschiedener Serotypen (H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, H9) wurden, um möglichst naturnahe Bedingungen zu schaffen, degeneriert mutagenisiert und dann ohne Zugabe einer externen Protease auf Trypsin-unabhängiges Wachstum hin selektiert. Es wurden nur von der monobasischen HA-Spaltstellenmutante des H5/R65 mit degeneriert mutagenisiertem HA, polybasische HA-Mutanten selektiert. Diese Viren zeigten eine ungewöhnliche AS-Komposition an der Spaltstelle, die weder der Wildtyp-Spaltstelle von H5/R65 noch einer natürlich bei HPAIV H5 vorkommenden Spaltstelle ähnelt. Zwei der isolierten Selektanten zeigten in weiteren in vitro Charakterisierungen den Phänotyp eines HPAIV. Da die Selektanten die restlichen sieben Gene und, außer der Spaltstelle, auch das HA mit H5/R65 gemeinsam haben, ist davon auszugehen, dass sie auch in vivo den Phänotyp eines HPAIV zeigen würden. Außerdem scheint es bei H5-Stämmen eine Prädisposition zum leichteren Erwerb einer polybasischen HA-Spaltstelle zu geben, wohingegen andere LPAIV-HA unter naturnahen Bedingungen polybasische HA-Spaltstellen deutlich schwerer erwerben können. Bei A/Chicken/Emirates/R66/02 H9N2 (H9/R66) führte die artifizielle Einführung der polybasischen HA-Spaltstellen eines HPAIV H5 oder H7 allein zwar zu Trypsin- unabhängigem Wachstum in vitro, bei Infektion von Hühnern blieb der Phänotyp aber unverändert niedrigpathogen. Die HA-Reassortante H9/R66+HAH5/R65 führte zur vorübergehenden nicht-letalen Erkrankung mit influenzatypischen Symptomen. Dagegen wies die Reassortante H5/R65+HAH9/R66mutR65 mit einem intravenösen Pathogenitäs-Index von 1,23 den Phänotyp eines HPAIV auf. Dies zeigt, dass ein HPAIV vom Serotyp H9 möglich ist, wenn das HA eine polybasische Spaltstelle erwirbt und einige oder alle anderen Gene von einem HPAIV H5 abstammen.
As the animal-to-human interface becomes increasingly narrow, transmission events of zoonotic pathogens between animals and humans become more and more probable. While SARS-CoV-2 already accomplished a spillover infection to humans and is responsible for the current pandemic, the bat H9N2 IAV with so far unknown zoonotic potential was only recently discovered. In order to identify I) the role and potential of a newly discovered, potentially pre-pandemic virus, such as the bat H9N2, or II) possible future prevailing virus mutant variants of an already known pandemic virus, such as SARS-CoV-2, it is important to characterize these emerging viruses in vivo as soon and as good as possible.
The first objective in this dissertation (Publications I and II) therefore deals with the characterization of bat H9N2 and the estimation of its zoonotic or even pandemic potential.
In Publication I, a general susceptibility of directly inoculated Egyptian fruit bats to bat H9N2 was confirmed by successful seroconversion, although exhibiting only moderate viral shedding. All three contact animals remained seronegative, though one contact bat showed slight lesions in the histopathological analysis.
Publication II further addressed the question of the zoonotic potential of this virus. Inoculation of day-old turkey hatchlings demonstrated moderate susceptibility to bat H9N2 infection with a measurable seroconversion, while day-old chicken hatchlings were not susceptible to bat H9N2. Ferrets proved to be highly susceptible to bat H9N2 with high viral shedding, a transmission efficiency rate of 100% to direct contact animals at 2 days post contact, but with only minimal clinical signs. Importantly, the virus demonstrated the ability to evade the MxA-restriction factor and to replicate efficiently in human lung tissue explants. Furthermore, seasonal IAV- and standard IAV-vaccines showed no cross reactivity against the bat-N2 protein in humans. Therefore, further research on such viruses is urgently needed in order to prevent a renewed pandemic situation in the future as caused by SARS-CoV-2.
The second objective in this dissertation dealt with the identification and characterization of emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern (VOCs).
Therefore, in Publication III, competitive infection experiments were performed using the Syrian golden hamster, the ferret, and transgenic mouse models (K18-hACE2 and hACE2-KI). These studies revealed replicative and transmissive predominance of Alpha VOC over Beta VOC, but not over SARS-CoV-2 WT in the hamster model, although Beta VOC substantially replicated in the lungs of donor animals. In contrast, the Alpha VOC had an unambiguous replication and transmission advantage over WT SARS-CoV-2 in the ferret and both mouse models. A recombinant SARS-CoV-2 WT-SAlpha virus helped to assign the fitness advantage of this variant particularly to the spike protein-associated mutations.
In Publication IV, in vitro results inferred an early replicative fitness advantage of Omicron BA.1 over Delta VOC, although the opposite was observed in competitively inoculated hamsters, ferrets and naive hACE2-KI mice. In addition, Publication IV demonstrated a disadvantage in transmission for the VOC Omicron BA.1 over the Delta VOC and a lack of susceptibility of ferrets after a single infection with the VOC Omicron BA.1. An mRNA vaccination of K18-hACE2 mice caused a drastic reduction of infectious virus particles in organ material following an infection with a recombinant SARS-CoV-2 WT-SDelta, but not when challenged with the SARS-CoV-2 SOmicron BA.1 clone.
This dissertation includes numerous, comprehensive experimental studies that are generally important for the characterization of emerging, potentially pre-pandemic viruses and may provide crucial information about the future dominance of certain virus variants in an ongoing pandemic. Here, the need for the use of a variety of animal models becomes apparent. By characterizing and classifying potentially zoonotic strains, these methods will help to better prepare for potentially upcoming pandemics and, in the case of a zoonotic or even pandemic event, to better detect and understand the circulating strains and their evolution.