Refine
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (13)
Has Fulltext
- yes (13)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (13)
Keywords
- Virologie (13) (remove)
Until today, more than 100 years after its first description in Italy, the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has not lost its fearsome character for wild birds, poultry and humans. On the contrary, the number of outbreaks with high casualty rates in wild birds and poultry has multiplied in recent years and cases of zoonotic infections are also increasingly reported from HPAI endemic areas. The epidemiology of these infections is complex and also involves surface water and possibly sediments of shallow standing waters, which could play a role as a vector medium and/or virus reservoir. The goal of this project was to expand current knowledge of the influence of water on the spread of AIV. As part of this project, we were able to ...
1. ...improve AIV detection methods using real time RT-PCR in terms of sensitivity and breadth of viruses detected. In addition, we succeeded in economizing the procedure so that fewer resources are required and results are obtained faster (publication I: [173]).
2. ...develop an ultrafiltration-based enrichment method for AIV from surface water and evaluate it with field samples from HPAI outbreak areas in wild bird habitats (Wadden Sea coast of Schleswig-Holstein) and previously unaffected regions (Antarctic Weddell Sea) (publication II: [174]). Furthermore, protocols for testing different environmental sample matrices for AIV screening were tested and compared to results of passive monitoring by dabbing diseased or dead wild birds. AIV was detected in more than half (61%) of 44 water samples. We received additional sediment samples from 36 of the 44 water samples. In 18 of 36 of the sediments tested, as well as in 4.16% of 1705 fecal samples tested AIV was detected. However, the studies of the environmental samples mostly yielded only generic AIV detections, with viral loads in the range of the detection limit. This massively hampered further investigations for sub- and pathotyping. In contrast, 79.41% of 68 samples from passive monitoring showed high to very high HPAIV viral loads which also allowed sub- and pathotyping.
3. ...demonstrate in animal experiments that even very low titers (0.1 TCID50 ml-1) of HPAI viral infectivity in water can induce productive infection in susceptible but clinically largely resistant mallard ducks (publication III: [175]). Furthermore, we were able to develop evidence that there is a difference in virus spread that depends on the type of (contaminated) water source. This means that infections on poultry farms with inverted or nipple drinkers may follow a different course than infections in the wild, which are mediated via larger surface waters.
Overall, the results of this project highlight the important role of surface and drinking water, as well as aquatic sediments, in the spread of AIV. The methods developed here for AIV detection extend the possibilities for surveillance of AIV infections; however, passive remains superior to active surveillance of HPAIV infections in several aspects. Examination of various environmental samples did not yield a significant advantage in terms of an early warning system that would indicate the presence or spread of HPAIV in wild bird habitats prior to the occurrence of lethal infections in wild birds.
Lyssaviruses, the causative agents of rabies, are a long-known threat for animals and humans. To date, terrestrial rabies still accounts for tens of thousands of human deaths annually, notwithstanding ambitious vaccination campaigns targeting susceptible dog and wildlife populations that act as reservoirs for the prototypic rabies virus. Moreover, the continuing discovery of newly emerging virus species in hitherto unconcerned chiropteran hosts and geographic regions drive the expansion of the Lyssavirus genus by unveiling its actual variety, host range and distribution.In this work, the genetic diversity of three distinct lyssaviruses, namely EBLV-1, KBLV and RABV, was elucidated by in-depth genomic analyses to provide further insight into lyssavirus evolution. The generation of full-genome sequences from primarily bat-associated Danish EBLV-1 samples significantly increased the number of available Danish EBLV-1 genome sequences while phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis revealed a stronger phylogeographic structure for the cluster A1 of the sublineage EBLV-1a than it was postulated in previous studies. In addition, the acquisition of a nearly complete genome sequence for the Kotalahti bat lyssavirus provided the basis for the classification of this putative new lyssavirus species as a recognized member of the genus. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis revealed the affiliation of KBLV to a group of Myotis-associated lyssaviruses giving a deeper insight into the shared evolutionary history of lyssaviruses co-evolving with particular bat species. Moreover, a deep-sequencing approach was utilized to assess the high genetic diversity of vaccine virus populations, uncovering three independent patterns of single nucleotide variants (SNVs) that became selected in ERA-related vaccine-induced cases. However, no apparent influence of the genetic diversity of vaccine viruses on microevolutionary processes like a potential reversion to virulence or a species-specific adaptation of the vaccine virus strains could be detected, leaving the question for the cause of rabies induction in the affected animals unanswered. Lastly, the successful implementation of a hybridization capturing system for the generation of full-genome sequences and deep-sequencing variant analyses of RABV and KBLV samples was demonstrated for a diagnostic bait set, highlighting the versatility and consistency of this approach to assess the genetic spectrum of known and novel lyssavirus species while setting the basis for its application and optimization in upcoming projects.In conclusion, as shown by the studies in this work, the investigation of lyssavirus genomes at the sub-consensus, full-genome and population level remains crucial to assess the complexity of lyssavirus evolution, as it provides an indispensable source of information to cover the diversity of the genus and understand evolutionary dynamics on a long-term and microevolutionary scale.
The advances in high-throughput sequencing technologies have revolutionized the possibilities for pathogen identification in cases of unknown disease origin. Diagnostic metagenomics allows the unbiased and simultaneous detection of almost all nucleic acids in a clinical sample, with the potential to provide pivotal insights into otherwise undeterminable causes of human or animal disease.
In this thesis, possibilities, pitfalls and the suitability of Ion Torrent and Illumina sequencing platforms for comprehensive use in diagnostic metagenomics were assessed and optimized procedures developed. Clinical field samples, undiagnosable by standard diagnostics, were taken as real-life examples for the investigations. The results show that cross-contamination due to index swapping and run-to-run-carryover constitute a major issue on Illumina platforms, severely compromising the correct interpretation of results for clinical specimens. In contrast, Ion Torrent platforms did not display any form of cross-contamination, however, the commercial library preparation method is less efficient. Combining the advantages of both platforms, customized Y adapters, facilitating highly efficient library preparation, were developed for Ion Torrent sequencing and applied in further experiments. The obstacles of strongly degraded RNA in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples were identified and the workflow adapted to meet the requirements of smaller fragments. Additionally, it was shown that adequate sampling is a very important step, if not the most important step, in the workflow, as well as subsequent validation of the obtained results in terms of causation. The achievements in this study allow other researchers the application of a sensitive and optimized diagnostic metagenomics workflow.
Furthermore, the investigations on the clinical samples resulted in the discovery of a novel respirovirus with putative zoonotic potential, the first description of Borna disease virus 1 in human organ transplant recipients, and the discovery of a very distantly related novel ovine picornavirus. These discoveries build a basis for further research and expand the knowledge regarding new and emerging viruses.
As the animal-to-human interface becomes increasingly narrow, transmission events of zoonotic pathogens between animals and humans become more and more probable. While SARS-CoV-2 already accomplished a spillover infection to humans and is responsible for the current pandemic, the bat H9N2 IAV with so far unknown zoonotic potential was only recently discovered. In order to identify I) the role and potential of a newly discovered, potentially pre-pandemic virus, such as the bat H9N2, or II) possible future prevailing virus mutant variants of an already known pandemic virus, such as SARS-CoV-2, it is important to characterize these emerging viruses in vivo as soon and as good as possible.
The first objective in this dissertation (Publications I and II) therefore deals with the characterization of bat H9N2 and the estimation of its zoonotic or even pandemic potential.
In Publication I, a general susceptibility of directly inoculated Egyptian fruit bats to bat H9N2 was confirmed by successful seroconversion, although exhibiting only moderate viral shedding. All three contact animals remained seronegative, though one contact bat showed slight lesions in the histopathological analysis.
Publication II further addressed the question of the zoonotic potential of this virus. Inoculation of day-old turkey hatchlings demonstrated moderate susceptibility to bat H9N2 infection with a measurable seroconversion, while day-old chicken hatchlings were not susceptible to bat H9N2. Ferrets proved to be highly susceptible to bat H9N2 with high viral shedding, a transmission efficiency rate of 100% to direct contact animals at 2 days post contact, but with only minimal clinical signs. Importantly, the virus demonstrated the ability to evade the MxA-restriction factor and to replicate efficiently in human lung tissue explants. Furthermore, seasonal IAV- and standard IAV-vaccines showed no cross reactivity against the bat-N2 protein in humans. Therefore, further research on such viruses is urgently needed in order to prevent a renewed pandemic situation in the future as caused by SARS-CoV-2.
The second objective in this dissertation dealt with the identification and characterization of emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern (VOCs).
Therefore, in Publication III, competitive infection experiments were performed using the Syrian golden hamster, the ferret, and transgenic mouse models (K18-hACE2 and hACE2-KI). These studies revealed replicative and transmissive predominance of Alpha VOC over Beta VOC, but not over SARS-CoV-2 WT in the hamster model, although Beta VOC substantially replicated in the lungs of donor animals. In contrast, the Alpha VOC had an unambiguous replication and transmission advantage over WT SARS-CoV-2 in the ferret and both mouse models. A recombinant SARS-CoV-2 WT-SAlpha virus helped to assign the fitness advantage of this variant particularly to the spike protein-associated mutations.
In Publication IV, in vitro results inferred an early replicative fitness advantage of Omicron BA.1 over Delta VOC, although the opposite was observed in competitively inoculated hamsters, ferrets and naive hACE2-KI mice. In addition, Publication IV demonstrated a disadvantage in transmission for the VOC Omicron BA.1 over the Delta VOC and a lack of susceptibility of ferrets after a single infection with the VOC Omicron BA.1. An mRNA vaccination of K18-hACE2 mice caused a drastic reduction of infectious virus particles in organ material following an infection with a recombinant SARS-CoV-2 WT-SDelta, but not when challenged with the SARS-CoV-2 SOmicron BA.1 clone.
This dissertation includes numerous, comprehensive experimental studies that are generally important for the characterization of emerging, potentially pre-pandemic viruses and may provide crucial information about the future dominance of certain virus variants in an ongoing pandemic. Here, the need for the use of a variety of animal models becomes apparent. By characterizing and classifying potentially zoonotic strains, these methods will help to better prepare for potentially upcoming pandemics and, in the case of a zoonotic or even pandemic event, to better detect and understand the circulating strains and their evolution.
Molekular-epidemiologische Untersuchungen veterinärmedizinisch relevanter Pathogene beruhen auf der Auswertung und Einordnung verlässlicher und detailreicher Sequenzinformationen. In den letzten Jahren haben sich die Sequenziermethoden des sogenannten Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) kontinuierlich weiterentwickelt, so dass nun Nukleinsäureproben unterschiedlichster Herkunft zur Volllängensequenzierung viraler Genome herangezogen werden können. Des Weiteren sind Metagenomanalysen möglich geworden, d.h. die Untersuchung der Zusammensetzung der Organismenpopulation in einer Probe durch Sequenzierung der gesamten Nukleinsäurepopulation. Letzteres erlaubt auch die Untersuchung viraler Varianten in einer Probe (Quasispeziesanalysen). Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden NGS-Methoden und Arbeitsabläufe zur Ausnutzung metagenomischer Datensätze optimiert, verfeinert und nachfolgend in praxisrelevanten Studien zu Lyssa- und Coronaviren erprobt. In einer ersten Studie zur Charakterisierung des neu entdeckten Bokeloh Fledermaus-Lyssavirus konnte gezeigt werden, dass es möglich ist, akkurate Volllängensequenzinformationen direkt aus Zellkulturüberständen zu generieren, die nicht nur die mittels der klassischen Kettenabbruch-Synthese generierten Daten bestätigen, sondern darüber hinaus auch virale Varianten aufzeigen. Eine detaillierte, hochauflösende Variantenanalyse (Tiefensequenzierung) lag im Fokus einer weiteren Studie zu Lyssaviren. Hier wurden kommerzielle Oralimpfstoffe gegen die Tollwut und ihre Ausgangsvirusstämme hinsichtlich ihrer Quasispezieszusammensetzung untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Tiefensequenzierung einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Qualitätskontrolle (Stammidentität und -stabilität) eines Lebendimpfstoffes liefern kann, der in den Lizensierungsprozess eingebunden werden könnte. Dabei ist die Analyse auf Ebene der viralen Gesamtpopulation der Auswertung auf Konsensusebene überlegen. Metagenomische Datensätze erlauben nicht nur die Analyse viraler Populationen, es sind auch Wirtsinformationen ableitbar. Die kombinierte Auswertung viraler und wirtsspezifischer Informationen erlaubte eine phylogeographische Studie zur genetischen Diversität arktischer Tollwutviren und ihrer Reservoirwirte. Die Methode konnte erfolgreich angewendet werden um zu zeigen, dass es zwar eine räumliche Populationsstruktur bei den untersuchten Polarfüchsen gibt, diese jedoch nicht mit unabhängigen Tollwutvirusvarianten assoziiert werden können. Neben den oben genannten Lyssavirusprojekten waren zwei Studien zum Virus der porzinen epidemischen Diarrhoe Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit. Metagenomische Datensätze wurden verwendet, um Volllängensequenzen abzuleiten und diese phylogenetischen Detailanalysen und Netzwerk-Untersuchungen zu unterziehen. Außerdem konnten die Datensätze verwendet werden, um virale und bakterielle Koinfektionen zu untersuchen, die möglicherweise einen Einfluss auf die Schwere der Erkrankung gehabt haben könnten. Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass uns die optimierten NGS-Methoden in die Lage versetzen, metagenomische Datensätze zu nutzen, um nicht nur unverfälschte Volllängensequenzen für phylogenetische Detailanalysen zu generieren, sondern auch Quasispezies-Analysen durchzuführen sowie Wirts- und Virusfaktoren vergleichend zu untersuchen.
Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)-technologies developed very fast in recent years and is used widely in current research areas. The aim of this study was to use NGS (i) for the identification of pathogens in outbreaks and (ii) for the identification of virulence-relevant sequencepolymorphisms when comparing whole genome sequences. Therefore, a previous developed workflow was used to identify a new virus of the family Bornaviridae. The generation of whole genome sequences elucidated the molecular epidemiological connection of infection of variegated squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides) and three human cases of fatal encephalitis. By generating the whole genome sequence of a Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) in Germany it was possible to find difference compared to circulating high virulent strains in the USA. This led to potential virulence marker to distinguish strain in the USA and Germany. Connections between sequence variation and virulence were further investigated for the bovine viral diarrhea virus 2c (BVDV-2c), cowpox viruses (CPXV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV). Here, for a highly virulent BVDV-2c strain a mixture of different genome structure variants could be found. The majority of these genomes harbors a duplication within the p7/NS2 coding region and might cause a high virulence. For CPXV virus isolated of different hosts were analyzed and a correlation between genome sequence and the A-type inclusion body phenotype could be found. Furthermore, several deletion/insertion events were detected which might influence the virulence of these strains. Finally, the virus population of CSFV strains in pigs was characterized. However, the population of the inoculum as well as of acute-lethal and chronically infected animals gave no indication that the virus itself causes the different types of disease outcome. In conclusion, this thesis shows the great potential of NGS for virus identification and characterization. Furthermore, it makes the identification of potential virulence marker possible which subsequently can be analyzed by reverse genetics.
Die Afrikanische Schweinepest (ASP) ist eine Viruserkrankung, die Mitglieder der Suidae-Familie wie Buschschweine, Warzenschweine, Hausschweine und Wildschweine befällt. Das Virus wird durch direkten Kontakt zwischen infizierten und naiven Tieren, durch Zecken der Gattung Ornithodoros oder durch Kontakt mit kontaminiertem Material übertragen. Während die Krankheit bei Warzenschweinen und Buschschweinen im Allgemeinen asymptomatisch verläuft, verursacht die ASP eine hohe Mortalität bei Hausschweinen und Wildschweinen. Daher ist die jüngste Ausbreitung von ASP in Europa eine ernste Bedrohung für die Schweinehaltung in der EU. Bis heute ist keine wirksame Behandlung oder Impfung verfügbar. Und es liegen nur wenige Informationen über Virus-Wirt-Wechselwirkungen vor, die als Grundlage für die Etablierung antiviraler Strategien verwendet werden könnten.
Das Virus der afrikanischen Schweinepest (African swine fever virus, ASFV) ist der einzige bekannte Vertreter der Familie der Asfarviridae. Das DNA-Genom des ASFV kodiert für über 150 Gene. Über die Expressionsprodukte ist wenig bekannt, nur wenige virale Proteine sind bisher funktionell charakterisiert. Die Morphogenese von ASFV ist sehr komplex. So entstehen neben den zweifach umhüllten reifen extrazellulären Virionen auch einfach umhüllte intrazelluläre Partikel, die die die Präparation reiner extrazellulären Virionen erschweren.
In früheren in vitro Studien wurde die Zusammensetzung der extrazellulären Viruspartikel mittels 2D-Gelelektrophorese analysiert. Die Reinigung erfolgte über ein im Jahre 1985 veröffentlichtes Reinigungsprotokoll, welches auf einer Percolldichtegradientenzentrifugation und einer Gelchromatographie basierte. Das Protokoll wurde für die Reinigung des auf Vero-zellen adaptierten Virusstamm Ba-71V etabliert. In einer frühen MS Studie wurden 54 Proteine in ASFV Partikeln detektiert, 15 davon Wirtsproteine. Der Einbau von Aktin, α-Tubulin und β-Tubulin ins Virion konnte ebenfalls bestätigt werden. Systematische massenspektrometrische Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung des Proteoms der ASF Virionen lagen zu Beginn der vorliegenden Dissertation nicht vor, erst während der Anfertigung des Manuskripts wurde eine solche Studie durch Alejo et al. veröffentlicht.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein auf einer Dichtegradientenzentrifugation ohne nachfolgende Gelchromatographie beruhendes Reinigungsprotokoll entwickelt und die Zusammensetzung reifer ASF Viruspartikel mittels MALDI-TOF/TOF Massenspektrometrie analysiert. Zur Anzucht einer GFP-positiven ASFV OUR T88/3 Mutante wurde die vom Wildschwein abstammende Zelllinie WSL-HP verwendet. Wesentliche Schritte der Reinigung waren eine niedertourige Zentrifugation zur Entfernung zellulärer Verunreinigungen, gefolgt von einer Sedimentation des Virus durch ein Saccharosekissen und einem Proteaseverdau. Final wurde die Präparation über einen selbstgenerierenden Optiprep™ Dichtegradienten gereinigt. Die Titerausbeute lag zwischen 30 und 70 %, die spezifische Infektiosität bei 2,4 x 109 TCID50/mg. Elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen zeigten, dass die Präparation zwar Virionen enthielt, aber auch, dass die Fixierung mit Glutaraldehyd die Stabilität der Virionen beeinträchtigt.
In der massenspektrometrischen Analyse wurden 29 der 33 bekannten ASFV Strukturproteine bestätigt. Von den neu identifizierten Strukturproteinen konnten vier (pK145R, pC129R, pE146L und pI73R) in allen drei Replikaten und sechs in zwei von drei Replikaten (p5, CP123L, CP312R, E184L, M1249L und M2248R) bestätigt werden. Ein weiteres bis dato nicht charakterisiertes Protein, p285L, konnte als mögliches neues Strukturprotein identifiziert werden. 152 Wirtsproteine wurden im Virion detektiert, darunter hauptsächlich Membranproteine oder Proteine des Zytoskeletts. Daneben wurde eine Reihe an phospholipidbindenden Proteine gefunden. Unter den identifizierten Proteinen waren fünf aus dem glatten ER und einige Vertreter der Hitzeschockproteine.
Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit sollte das intrazelluläre Proteom des ASFV identifiziert werden.
Für diese Untersuchungen wurden drei empfänglichen Zelllinien verwendet, die vom Wildschwein abstammenden Linie WSL-HP, Vero Zellen, die in der Vergangenheit für viele Studien herangezogen wurde und die menschliche Linie HEK-293, die aus einem weiteren nicht empfänglichen Wirt stammt.
Der in dieser Studie verwendete Virusstamm ASFV OUR T88/3 besitzt 157 ORFs. In früheren Studien konnte die Existenz eines Proteins für 44 ORFs bestätigt werden. Für weitere 69 ORFs wurden Transkripte, nicht aber die korrespondierenden Proteine, beschrieben, sodass für 44 ORFs kein Nachweis der Expression vorlag.
In der massenspektrometrischen Analyse wurden je Wirtszelle rund 1000 Proteine identifiziert. Insgesamt belief sich die Zahl der identifizierten ASFV Proteine auf 94, davon 88 in WSL-HP, 83 in Vero und 57 in HEK-293 Zellen. 54 ASFV Proteine wurden in allen drei Zelllinien detektiert. Für 34 der identifizierten ASFV Proteine war bisher nur die Existenz des Transkripts beschrieben, für 23 weitere weder die Existenz eines Proteins noch eines Transkripts. Für 44 der 94 identifizierten Proteine wurde das N-terminales Peptid detektiert. Bei fünf der MGF-110 Proteinen (1L, 2L, 4L, 5L und 14L) und den Proteinen pI329L und pCP123L wurde die Abspaltung der vorhergesagten Signalsequenz experimentell bestätigt.
Die MS Analysen wurden unter Verwendung des emPAI auch quantitativ ausgewertet.
Die geringe Zahl detektierter ASFV Proteine in HEK-293 Zellen korrelierte mit dem geringeren Anteil an ASFV Proteinen im Gesamtproteingehalt der Zelle (6,3 Mol%). Allerdings wurden einige Proteine in HEK-293 Zellen ähnlich stark oder sogar stärker exprimiert als in Vero bzw. WSL-HP Zellen. Die Abundanz einzelner ASFV Proteine variierte in den verschiedenen Zelllinien. Einige wurden jedoch durchgehend stark exprimiert wie z.B. das Strukturprotein p11.5. Einige bisher nicht charakterisierte Proteine, wie z.B. pK145R, pI73R und pC129R, wurden überraschenderweise ebenfalls in allen Zellen stark exprimiert und sind somit möglicherweise Träger wichtiger viraler Funktionen, die weiter untersucht werden sollten.
The respiratory epithelium acts as both, a barrier of the respiratory tract to Nipah virus (NiV) entry and at the same time as a significant determinant of virus shedding. Both, for humans and pigs, replication in the respiratory tract epithelia is considered a major factor in transmission to other hosts. To understand why the virus constitutes a high-risk pathogen for livestock and humans, knowledge about
viral replication and host responses in relevant cells and tissues is crucial. Most in vitro studies, however, have been performed in conventional cell lines or non-differentiated lung cells. Only a few examples exist where Henipavirus infections have been investigated in fully-differentiated lung
epithelial cell models.
Thus, one aim of this thesis was to investigate infection, replication, spread and host protein dynamics of NiV in primary bronchial epithelial cells (BEC) cultivated at the air-liquid-interphase (ALI). By
immunofluorescence imaging, the NiV infection dynamics in BEC-ALI cultures were monitored over a 12 day time course, in order to provide detailed information about the infection process in the
respiratory epithelium of pigs and ferrets. Compared to undifferentiated primary BEC, the specific infectivity of NiV in BEC-ALI cultures was low. Infections remained focal and complete infection of the
cultures was not observed, even at 12 dpi. Analysis of viral titers and viral mRNA indicated a limited
virion release from the infected ALI-cultures while most of the newly synthesized NiV-RNA remained
cell associated. Immunofluorescence analysis of cross sections from infected ALI-cultures revealed
large infected areas that exhibited a strong cytopathic effect (CPE). Disruption of the epithelium
resulted in apical release of virus antigen-positive cell detritus while ciliated areas and basal cells were
less affected. From these data it was concluded, that NiV transmission could be supported by
exhalation of cell debris associated NiV and thus may contribute to rapid spread of infection in swine
populations.
A second aim was to explore the dynamics of host responses to NiV infection in differentiated BEC-ALI
culture and to assess whether this differs to conventional cell line data available from literature. Even
though strong CPE appeared in later phases of NiV infection, at least the porcine PBEC-ALI cultures
remained robust enough to allow protein sampling over 12 days infection course. Subsequent MS-based proteomics enabled unprecedent insight in complex cell culture response upon NiV infection.
Previous reports indicated a lack of efficient interferon type I induction in non-differentiated pig or
human BEC which were considered a prerequisite for efficient replication in the respiratory epithelium
and virusspread. In contrast to non-differentiated pig BEC (PBEC), in PBEC-ALI cultures multiple factors
involved in interferon responses were upregulated upon NiV infection. Thereby it was demonstrated
that NiV infection induced a robust innate immune response upon infection with elevated components of antigen processing and presentation resulting in the conversion from the constitutive proteasome to the immunoproteasome. In contrast to previous reports about NiV-infected non-differentiated
PBEC or endothelial cells, incomplete immunoproteasome formation and limitations in interferon
response could be excluded. Thus, a model is proposed in which NiV infection and spread in differentiated PBECs is slowed by potent innate immune responses to the virus infection. Overall, the
findings highlight the important role of the respiratory epithelium not only as a physical barrier to virus
infections but also indicate itsrole as a primary site of adaptive immune induction through NiV induced
antigen processing and MHC I presentation.
Finally, to allow functional studies of Henipaviruses at the BSL-2 biosafety level a recombinant CedPV
was generated and rescued. An imaging based screening and quantitative analysis pipeline was established to investigate the role of cellular factors and to screen for potential virus and host gene
directed inhibitory factors. Accordingly, different host and viral genes were targeted with a siRNA-pool
either targeting virus or selected cellular mRNAs followed by the infection with the CedPV and the
quantification of infected cells. With proof of concept of the siRNA screening pipeline, the recombinant
CedPV clone was used as a backbone to insert variousfluorescence reporter genesin order to optimize
the analysis workflow by allowing direct virus quantification in live, unstained samples. Consequently,
this thesis provides a valuable proof for future approaches related to the function of virus proteins,
influence of host-factors and virusreplication and Henipavirus-inhibitorscreens at low biosafety levels.
The highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus Marek’s disease virus (MDV) causes immense economic losses in the poultry industry. The main targets of in vivo MDV infection are primary B and T lymphocytes. The cytolytic infection of B cells leads to depletion of lymphoid cells results in severe immunosuppression. Infected B cells recruit and activate T cells. The close interaction between B cells and T cells enables efficient intercellular transfer of MDV. During infection of T cells, the virus enters a latent state. Infection of T cells can lead to transformation of these cells and formation of lymphoma, which manifest in various visceral organs. This study aimed at the characterization of the proteomes of MDV-infected lymphocytes during the lytic and latent phases of infection.
Previous in vitro studies concerning the MDV pathogenesis and host-virus interactions have been mainly conducted with primary fibroblasts or kidney cells, due to the short lifespan of primary lymphocytes in cell culture. Recently, a cultivation system has been established that extents the lifespan of primary lymphocytes through the addition of cytokines to the growth medium. This allowed the infection of B cells in vitro and to conduct quantitative proteomic analysis of primary lymphocytes. Infection with GFP labelled virus recombinants allowed the isolation of infected cells by FACS for the proteome analysis of MDV infected B lymphocytes. An efficient quantitative proteomic workflow was developed, which consisted of a filter-aided (FASP) digest of the extracted proteins, followed by differential dimethyl chemical labeling of the peptides for quantitative evaluation prior to LC-MALDI TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. Only few alterations of the protein and transcript expression profiles were observed after infection of primary B cells with the very virulent RB-1B and the live-attenuated vaccine strain CVI988/Rispens. Relevant changes in relative protein levels were found for only twelve and six interesting host proteins after RB1B and CVI988 infection, respectively. However, the regulations were confirmed by inspection of the spectra from all experiments. The identified candidates play a role in immune response, translation and inflammatory response.
To confirm the potential infection markers, RNA-seq analysis of three biological replicates of each RB-1B -, CVI988- and mock-infected B cells was performed. Eighty expressed MDV transcripts could be identified, which were associated with lytic infection. The same MDV proteins were identified after infection with RB-1B or CVI988. However, transcriptome and proteome analysis of MDV-infected primary B cells showed only poor correlation. This indicates that the changes in protein expression profiles are mostly due to posttranscriptional events. Infection marker candidates were identified by the RNA-seq analysis, for which the gene expression was altered by MDV infection. Although almost 12,000 transcripts were identified, only few transcript levels changed markedly after MDV infection. The biological processes immune response, apoptotic process, signal transduction, cell migration and response to virus were enriched after MDV infection. The RNA-seq results confirm the observation that alterations of protein levels early after MDV infection are rare.
Most notably, MDV induces transformation of lymphocytes leading to malignant T-cell lymphomas in visceral organs with mortalities of up to 100 %. While several factors involved in MDV tumorigenesis have been identified, the transformation process is not fully understood. Therefore, we set out to fill this knowledge gap using proteome analysis of transformed T-cells ex vivo. In addition, the role of the viral telomerase RNA during transformation was assessed by comparison of tumors that had formed after infection with WT-virus or a telomerase RNA negative mutant. A major obstacle for tumor proteome analyses is the preparation of sufficient amounts of homogenous tumor tissue, as tumors appear with a dispersed morphology in the affected organs. The quantitation of cell types within the tumors indicated varying portions of hepatocytes, connective tissue, and CD3+ lymphocytes even with the same virus strain in different animals. However, the ∆vTR-induced tumors contained lower levels of hepatocytes and higher levels of CD3+ lymphocytes compared to WT tumors in all tested tumor samples. Thus, ∆vTR tumors were chosen for determination of differences in protein expression profiles of tumors and naïve T cells for their lower content of liver cells. We developed a workflow for the proteome analysis of T cell tumors from livers of MDV-infected chickens. Samples included laser capture micro-dissected tissue cuts from tumors and surrounding healthy liver tissue as well as naïve T-cells prepared from thymus. To enable quantitative proteome analysis, samples were digested using the FASP protocol and peptides were isotope-coded by differential dimethyl labeling. To improve proteome analysis peptides were fractionated by preparative isoelectric focusing prior to nano-HPLC MALDI/TOF-TOF mass- spectrometric analysis.
Proteomic analyses of LCM dissected ΔvTR tumor compared to naïve T cells, the main targets of transformation, identified nineteen potential transformation markers but again only minor changes in relative levels were observed. Several of the identified markers could also be verified by RT-qPCR on transcript level. The identified transformation candidates were associated with nucleosome assembly, regulation of transcription, inflammatory response, immune response and oxidation-reduction process.
However, further functional analyses are necessary to fully elucidate the role of the identified markers during MDV infection and transformation.