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Thiol or sulfhydryl groups are highly reactive functional groups in cellular systems. Molecules carrying thiol groups are mostly derivatives of the amino acid cysteine and are grouped as low molecular weight (LMW)-thiols: coenzyme A (CoA), glutathione (GSH) or bacillithiol (BSH). LMW-thiols can help in the maintenance of the reduced cellular environment as so called redox-buffers. Additionally, they act as co-factors in enzyme reactions or help in the detoxification of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, electrophilic compounds or thiophilic metalloids (arsenite, tellurite). In proteins from different organisms cysteine is underrepresented compared to other amino acids, but still overtakes diverse roles. It is an important determinant in the tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins. The nucleophilic character of the thiol or thiolate group, respectively, makes cysteine the catalytically active amino acids of different enzymes. As a precursor cysteine participates in the formation of Fe-S clusters and coordinates different co-factors like heme, iron or zinc. The main goal of this study was the investigation of the different cellular thiol pools, now defined as the thiolome. The thiolome is the entity of the cellular thiol pools, i.e. LMW-thiols and protein thiols, and the dynamics between these pools. In Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus mixed disulfides between protein thiols and free LMW-thiols, so called S-thiolations, were identified in different proteins in response to the thiol specific reagent diamide. Some of these S-thiolations were located at catalytically active cysteine residues. Subsequent analysis of metabolites supports this: the S-thiolation of the cobalamine-independent methionine-synthase MetE led to a decrease of the cellular methionine content. Additionally, the conversion of threonine to different branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) was disrupted by the S-thiolation of the branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase YwaA, thereby probably inducing the synthesis of ppGpp, the alarmon of the stringent response. In addition to the identification of S-thiolations a technique was established which allowed the discrimination between intra- and intermolecular disulfides. The non-reducing/ reducing diagonal gel electrophoresis was applied to B. subtilis and S. aureus and confirmed known existing disulfide bonds, e.g. in alkyl hydroperoxide reductase AhpC or the thiol peroxidase Tpx. In response to diamide an increase of specific disulfide bonds in different proteins was observed. The analysis of the LMW-thiol content by an HPLC-approach allowed the observation of the dynamics of the thiolome. In response to diamide the reduced LMW-thiol content decreased by 75%, reduced protein thiols by 60%. Collaborations with other working groups allowed the identification of BSH in this approach. Additionally, an unknown thiol was found that is likely a derivative of BSH. Screening of the LMW-thiol content of different S. aureus-strains under various growth conditions revealed that strains 8325-4 and SH1000 lack BSH. The lack of BSH was attributed to an 8 bp-duplication in the bshC-gene that encodes the last enzyme of the BSH-synthesis. BSH-production was restored by transducing plasmid-borne functional BshC from strain Newman into strains 8325-4 and SH1000. The reconstitution of the BSH-synthesis aided in the resistance to the antibiotic fosfomycin but did not increase the resistance to different oxidants (diamide, sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide). The production of BSH had also positive effects on the survival of S. aureus inside human bronchial epithelial cells and murine macrophages in phagocytosis assays. Additionally, a GSH-uptake was observed into S. aureus which has before been known as a GSH-free bacterium. Taken together, this thesis provides the first insights into both, the LMW-thiol- and protein thiol pool of low GC, Gram-positive bacteria under different conditions. A plethora of different methodologies was used to describe the thiolome. The bacterial thiolome is a sophisticated system which is tightly regulated, but also flexible enough to not rely on determined molecules like BSH. The influences of the thiolome are not restricted to its own system and regulation, but also affect different branches of cellular physiology like the metabolism of BCAAs.
Die chronische arterielle Hypertonie erhöht das Risiko für kardiovaskuläre Komplikationen wie Schlaganfall und Myokardinfarkt. In der Pathophysiologie dieser Komplikationen spielen Thrombozyten eine wesentliche Rolle. Hierbei gehen die meisten Experten derzeit davon aus, dass Thrombozyten mit den durch die Hypertonie geschädigten Gefäßwänden reagieren. Ziel unserer Untersuchungen war es, zu untersuchen, ob durch die Hypertonie auch Veränderungen in Thrombozyten entstehen. Thrombozyten zirkulieren im Kreislauf in engem Kontakt mit der Gefäßwand und reagieren sensibel auf hohe Scherkräfte und aktivierte Endothelzellen. Jede Aktivierung, auch in reversiblen Frühstadien führt dabei zu Veränderungen in der Proteinzusammensetzung der Thrombozyten, dem Proteom. Da sie keinen Kern haben, ist die Proteinneosynthese in Thrombozyten stark limitiert. So „speichern“ Thrombozyten Informationen über ihre Aktivierungshistorie während ihrer zehntägigen Überlebenszeit, da die veränderten Proteine nicht, oder nur sehr eingeschränkt durch neu synthetisierte Proteine ersetzt werden. Proteomics bietet einen Ansatz, über tausend Proteine gleichzeitig zu untersuchen. Mittels zweidimensionaler, differentieller in Gel Elektrophorese (2D-DIGE) kann dabei ein sensibler quantitativer Vergleich zweier Proben erfolgen. Die komplexe Methodik erfordert jedoch eine hochgradige Standardisierung der Versuchsgruppen. In diesem Projekt wurde daher ein Tiermodell verwendet, um die ca. 1000, mittels 2D-PAGE dargestellten Proteinspots des Thrombozytenzytosols auf hypertoniebedingte Veränderungen zu untersuchen. Dabei wurden zwei unterschiedliche Rattenmodelle der Hypertonie eingesetzt um die Aussagekraft zu erhöhen. Nach 14tägiger Hypertoniephase wurden 45 Proteinspots detektiert, deren Intensität in beiden Rattenmodellen signifikant verändert war. Die Identifikation dieser Spots mittels Massenspektrometrie zeigte neben spezifischen Thrombozytenproteinen v.a. Zytoskelett- und Zytoskelett -assoziierte Proteine. Wurde an die 14tägige Hypertoniephase eine 10tägige Erholungsphase angeschlossen, waren diese Veränderungen nicht mehr nachweisbar. Überraschenderweise waren die beobachteten Veränderungen unterdrückbar durch mehrmalige Blutentnahme vor- und während der Hypertoniephase. Dabei wurden 8 Tage vor-, sowie zweimal während der Hypertoniephase (Tage 3 und 10) 3 ml Blut entnommen. Die daraufhin durchgeführte Untersuchung auf Veränderungen des Thrombozytenproteoms durch Blutentnahmen an normotensiven Tieren zeigte ein Muster an Veränderungen, dass dem unter Hypertonie beobachteten entgegengesetzt war. Eine denkbare Ursache für diese Beobachtung ist, dass die Thrombozytopoese durch die mehrmaligen Blutverluste gesteigert wurde. Die so vermehrt ausgeschütteten „jungen“ Thrombozyten zeigen ein inverses Proteommuster, gegenüber den durch Hypertonie gestressten Thrombozyten. Um dieser Hypothese nachzugehen wurden Ratten mit dem Thrombopoetinrezeptoragonisten Romiplostim behandelt. Das Thrombozytenproteom von Ratten nach Stimulation der Thrombozytopoese ähnelt dem von Ratten nach mehrmaligen Blutentnahmen. Dies unterstützt unsere Hypothese, dass die durch Blutentnahmen bedingten Proteomveränderungen auf eine gesteigerte Thormobzytopoese zurückzuführen sind und damit auf das gesteigerte Vorkommen junger Thrombozyten im Blutkreislauf. Veränderungen des Thrombozytenproteoms, die in beiden Tiermodellen unter Hypertonie auftraten, können mit großer Sicherheit auf die Hypertonie zurückgeführt werden. Zu beachten ist allerdings, dass beide Modelle auf einer Aktivierung des Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosteron Systems (RAAS) basieren. Es kann also nicht differenziert werden, ob die Veränderungen durch die Hypertonie selbst oder durch das aktivierte RAAS verursacht wurden. Die Tiermodelle spiegeln somit nur eine Subgruppe der Hypertoniepatienten wider. Wir haben mit diesen Experimenten Thrombozyten-Proteine identifiziert, die sich durch einen erhöhten Blutdruck verändern. Diese Proteine sind daher potentielle Kandidaten für Biomarker, die eine Aussage über den Blutdruckverlauf der zurückliegenden Tage ermöglichen. Solch ein Marker, ähnlich dem HbA1c beim Diabetes mellitus, könnte die Hypertoniediagnostik erheblich erleichtern. Für die in dieser tierexperimentellen Studie identifizierten Proteine finden sich analoge Proteine in menschlichen Thrombozyten. Deren Veränderung durch Bluthochdruck sollte in Fall/Kontroll-Studien am Menschen untersucht werden. In Ergänzung zum im Journal of Hypertension veröffentlichten Artikel wird in der vorliegenden deutschen Zusammenfassung detaillierter auf die Methoden eingegangen. Darüber hinaus werden zusätzliche Aspekte in der Diskussion angesprochen.
Teil 1: Pathogeninaktivierung: Es wurde ein neues Verfahren zur Pathogeninaktivierung mittels Proteomanalysen untersucht. Bei diesem wurden Proben von Kaninchenthrombozyten mit Riboflavin bzw. Psoralen inkubiert und mit UV-A Licht bestrahlt. Dadurch werden die in Pathogenen enthaltenen Nukleinsäuren unbrauchbar gemacht, wohingegen gezeigt werden konnte, dass die Plättchen kaum in ihrem Proteom und damit vermutlich in ihrer Funktionalität beeinflusst wurden. Teil 2: Thrombozytenalterung: Durch Apherese wurde an drei auf einander folgenden Tagen die in einem humanen Spender zirkulierenden Plättchen auf 80000/µl depletiert und anschließend Plättchen aus dem Vollblut mittels differentieller Zentrifugation gewonnen. Während der einsetzenden Nachbildung von Thrombozyten wurde das Proteom der Zellen mit den Ausgangswerten verglichen und so versucht, Alterungsmarker im Thrombozytenproteom zu finden.
Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal colonizing 20-30% of the population as well as a pathogen causing diverse diseases ranging from skin infections via toxin mediated diseases to life threatening conditions. In its interplay with the human host, this microorganism resorts to an extensive repertoire of both membrane-bound and secreted virulence factors facilitating adhesion to, invasion of, and spreading into various host tissues. Among the numerous virulence factors produced by S. aureus are the staphylococcal superantigens (SAgs). They directly cross-link conserved regions of the T cell-receptor with MHC class II molecules (outside the peptide-binding cleft) on antigen presenting cells. This results in a strong stimulation of up to 20% of all T cells which respond with proliferation and massive cytokine release. Recently, the enterotoxin gene cluster (egc) located on a pathogenicity island was described. The egc-genes are the most prevalent SAg genes in commensal and invasive S. aureus isolates. However, they appear to cause toxic shock only very rarely and their presence is negatively correlated with severity of S. aureus sepsis. Therefore it was suggested that SAgs might differ in their pro-inflammatory potential. In addition to their superantigenicity, SAgs also act as conventional antigens and induce a specific antibody response. In contrast to non-egc SAgs, despite the high prevalence of egc SAgs, neutralizing antibodies against egc SAgs are very rare, even among carriers of egc-positive S. aureus strains. In order to find an explanation for this “egc-gap”, we have tested two non-exclusive hypotheses: (i) egc and non-egc SAgs have unique intrinsic properties and drive the immune response into different directions and (ii) egc and non-egc SAgs are released by S. aureus under different conditions, which shape the immune response to them. To test these hypotheses, we compared the effects of egc and non-egc SAgs on human blood cells. Their T cell-mitogenic potencies, the elicited cytokine profiles as well as their impact on gene expression were highly similar. Both egc and non-egc SAgs induced a very strong pro-inflammatory response. In contrast, the regulation of SAg release by S. aureus differed markedly between egc and non-egc SAgs. Egc-encoded proteins were secreted by S. aureus during exponential growth, while non-egc SAgs were released in the stationary phase. We conclude that the distinct biological behavior of egc and non-egc SAgs is not due to their intrinsic properties, which are very similar, but is caused by their differential release by S. aureus. Traditionally, S. aureus has not been considered as an intracellular pathogen but strong evidence emerged indicating that staphylococci can invade and persist in various cell types. Internalization might constitute a bacterial strategy to evade the host’s defense reactions and the action of antibiotics. The intracellular niche might thus constitute a reservoir for chronic or relapsing infections. Contrary to their potential importance, genome-wide functional genomics analyses of the adaptation reactions of S. aureus to the host cell environment are rare and so far confined to gene expression profiling. Investigations addressing the proteome of internalized S. aureus are still lacking due to the challenge of obtaining a sufficient number of infecting bacteria. The proteome of other pathogens such as Francisella tularensis has been characterized by classical 2-DE approaches. However, the number of bacteria required for such a 2-DE based approach is often exceeding the numbers available from in vivo infection models. Furthermore, this approach does not allow monitoring of time-dependent quantitative changes in protein levels. Here, a workflow allowing time-resolved analysis of internalized S. aureus by combining pulse-chase stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture with high capacity cell sorting, on-membrane digestion, and high-sensitivity mass spectrometry is presented. This workflow permits detection and quantitative monitoring of several hundred staphylococcal proteins from as little as a few million internalized S. aureus cells. This approach has been used to reveal time-resolved changes in levels of proteins in S. aureus RN1HG upon internalization by human bronchial epithelial cells. Proteins involved in stress adaptation as well as protein folding and some components of the phosphotransferase system were upregulated in internalized staphylococci, whereas proteins of the purine biosynthesis pathway and tRNA aminoacylation were downregulated. Furthermore, regulatory adaptive responses of internalized S. aureus to the intracellular milieu were shown as global regulators displayed increased protein abundance levels compared to non-internalized bacteria. Taken together, we observed changes in levels of proteins with functions in protection against oxidative damage and adaptation of cell wall synthesis in internalized S. aureus.
The present work consists of four parts, containing experimental data obtained from analysis of 'Bacillus subtilis' specific and general defense strategies against reactive oxygen species. In the first part, the peroxide and superoxide stress stimulons ob 'B. subtilis' were analyzed by means of transcriptomics and proteomics. Oxidative stress responsive genes were classified into two groups: the gene expression pattern was either similar after both stresses or the genes primarily responded to one stimulus. The high induction observed for members of the PerR-regulon after both stimuli supported the assumption that activation of the peroxide specific PerR-regulon represented the primary stress response after superoxide and peroxide stress. The second part focuses on protein carbonylation in 'B. subtilis' wild-type and 'sigB' mutant cells. The introduction of carbonyl groups into amino acid side chains of proteins represents one possible form of protein modification after attack by reactive oxygen species. Carbonyl groups are readily detectable and the observed amounts can thus serve as an indicator for the severity of protein damage. The resultsdemonstrate clearly that 'B. subtilis' proteins are susceptible to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) mediated carbonylation damage. The application of low concentrations of H2O2 prior to the exposure to otherwise lethal levels of peroxide reduced markedly the degree of protein carbonylation, which also held true for glucose starved cells. Artificial preloading with general stress proteins resulted in a lower level of protein carbonylation when cells were subjected to oxidative stress, but no differences were detected between wild-type and 'sigB' mutant cells. In the third part, strains with mutations in genes encoding general stress proteins were screenedfor decreased resistance after H2O2 challenge. It was demonstrated that resistance to H2O2 challenge. It was demonstrated that resistance to H2O2 after transient heat treatment, likewise to conditions of glucose starvation, was at least partly mediated by the sB-dependent general stress response. The screening of mutants in sB-controlled genes revealed an important role for the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-binding protein Dps in the context of sB-mediated resistance to oxidative stress underlining previous reports. Therefore, the experimental strategy opens a global view on the importance of DNA integrity in 'B. subtilis' under conditions of oxidative stress. The fourth part includes analysis of a 'B. subtilis' thioredoxin conditional mutant. The thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase TrxA is an essential protein in 'B. subtilis' that is suggested to be involved in maintaining the cytoplasmic thiol-disulfide state even under conditions of oxidative stress. To investigate the physiological role of TrxA, growth experiments and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis were carried out with exponentially growing cells that were depleted of TrxA. The observations indicate that TrxA essentially involved in the re-reduction of phosphoadenosyl phosphosulfate reductase CysH within the sulfate assimilation pathway of 'B. subtilis'.