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In vitro and in vivo analyses of mono- and mixed-species biofilms formed by microbial pathogens
(2022)
Microbial biofilms can be defined as multicellular clusters of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular matrix (ECM), which is primarily composed of polymeric biomolecules. Biofilms represent one of the most severe burdens in both industry and healthcare worldwide, causing billions of dollars of treatment costs annually because biofilms are inherently difficult to prevent, treat, and eradicate. In health care settings, patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, or patients with medical implants are highly susceptible to biofilm infections. Once a biofilm is formed, it is almost impossible to quantitatively eradicate it by mechanical, enzymatical, chemical, or antimicrobial treatment. Often the only remaining option to fully eradicate the biofilm is removing of the infected implant or body part. The primary reasons for the inherent resistance of biofilms against all forms of antimicrobial treatment are (I) a reduced metabolic activity of biofilm-embedded cells climaxing in the presence of metabolic inactive persister cells, as well as (II) the protective nature of the biofilm matrix acting as a (diffusion) barrier against antimicrobials and the host immune system. Consequently, there is an urgent need to better understand microbial biofilms from a structural and (patho-) physiological point of view in order to be able to develop new treatment strategies.
Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate fundamental physiological properties of different clinically relevant single and multi-species biofilms, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the effectiveness of a novel treatment strategy using cold atmospheric pressure plasma was evaluated in vitro to treat biofilms of the pathogenic fungus C. albicans.
In article I, the intracellular and ECM protein inventory of Staphylococcus aureus during in vitro biofilm growth in a flow reactor was analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis combined with metabolic footprint analysis. This analysis showed that anaerobiosis within biofilms releases organic acids lowering the ECM pH. This, in turn, leads to protonation of alkaline proteins – mostly ribosomal proteins originating from cell lysis as well as actively secreted virulence factors – resulting in a positive net charge of these proteins. As a consequence, these proteins accumulate within the ECM and form an electrostatic network with negatively charged cell surfaces, eDNA, and metabolites contributing to the overall biofilm stability.
In article II, the in vivo metaproteome of the multi-species biofilm community in cystic fibrosis sputum was investigated. To this end, an innovative protocol was developed allowing the enrichment of microbial cells, the extraction of proteins from a small amount of cystic fibrosis sputum, and subsequent metaproteome analysis. This protocol also allows 16S sequencing, metabolic footprint analysis, and microscopy of the same sample to complement the metaproteome data. Applying this protocol, we were able to significantly enhance microbial protein coverage providing first insights into important physiological pathways during CF lung infection. A key finding was that the arginine deaminase pathway as well as microbial proteases play a so far underappreciated role in CF pathophysiology.
In articles III and IV, a novel treatment strategy for biofilms formed by the important fungal pathogen Candida albicans was evaluated in vitro. Biofilms were treated with two different sources of nonthermal plasma (with the Nonthermal Plasma Jet “kINPen09” as well as with the Microwave-induced plasma torch “MiniMIP”) and the effect on growth, survival, and viability was assessed by counting colony-forming units (CFU), by cell proliferation assays, as well as by live/dead staining combined with fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, (CLSM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These tests revealed that biofilms were effectively inactivated mostly on the bottom side of biofilms, indicating a great potential of these two plasma sources to fight biofilms.
This thesis highlights the impact of surface charges and negative ions on the pre-ionization, breakdown mechanism, and lateral structure of dielectric barrier discharges operated in binary mixtures of helium with nitrogen or electronegative oxygen. Sophisticated diagnostic methods, e.g., non-invasive optical emission spectroscopy and the electro-optic Pockels effect as well as invasive laser photodetachment and laser photodesorption, were applied at one plane-parallel discharge configuration to investigate both relevant volume and surface processes. Moreover, the experimental findings were supported by numerical fluid simulations of the discharge. For the first time, the memory effect of the measured surface charge distribution was quantified and its impact on the local self-stabilization of discharge filaments was pointed out. As well, it turned out that a few additional seed electrons, either desorbed from the charged dielectric surface or detached from negative ions in the volume, significantly contribute to the pre-ionization resulting in a reduced voltage necessary for discharge breakdown. Finally, effective secondary electron emission coefficients of different dielectrics were estimated from the measured breakdown voltage using an analytical model.
Comprehensive study of the discharge mode transition in inductively coupled radio frequency plasmas
(2016)
In this contribution, the mode transition of an inductively coupled radio frequency plasma at low pressure is investigated. Therefore, a comprehensive set of plasma diagnostics were applied to determine plasma and processing parameters. Therewith, the plasma kinetics and especially the important elementary processes were studied. Hence, the reason for the mode transition was identified.
Bei moderaten sinusförmigen Betriebsspannungen tritt in reinem Stickstoff der diffuse Townsend-Modus (APTD) auf. Das elektrische Feld ist hier über den Entladungsspalt annähernd konstant, weshalb ein anodengerichteter exponentieller Anstieg der Intensität der Emission beobachtet wird. Dementsprechend ist das Intensitätsmaximum direkt vor der Anode lokalisiert. Überraschenderweise lässt sich die APTD unter den gegebenen experimentellen Bedingungen (Breite des Entladungsspalts d_Spalt=1 mm und sinusförmige Betriebsspannung) ebenfalls in einer Helium-BE genieren. Für gewöhnlich wird jedoch in einer Helium-Entladung der diffuse Glimmentladungs-Modus (APGD) beobachtet, wobei der Entladungsspalt zwischen 2-5 mm breit ist. Das Emissionsmaximum einer solchen Entladung befindet sich durch die Ausbildung eines Kathodenfallgebiets vor der Kathode. Die geringe Breite des Entladungsspalts verhindert hier jedoch die Ausbildung der APGD. Entsprechend kann sich das Kathodenfallgebiet nicht entwickeln, wodurch die Spaltspannung nur schwach einbricht. Das Intensitätsmaximum der Emissionsentwicklung befindet sich wie bei der diffusen Stickstoff-BE direkt vor der Anode. Die Zünd- und Brennspannung ist in Stickstoff größer als in Helium, da die Vibrationszustände des Stickstoffs effizient durch Elektronen angeregt werden und diesen dabei Energie entzogen wird. Helium hat jedoch keine Vibrationszustände, weshalb die Elektronentemperatur ansteigt und die Zünd- und Brennspannung deutlich geringer ist. Eine Erhöhung des Spannungsanstiegs dU/dt beeinflusst signifikant die Entladungsentwicklung in der diffusen Helium-Entladung. So führt eine Variation von der Sinus- zur Rechteckspannung zu einem Wechsel des Entladungsmodus, nämlich von der APTD zur APGD. Die Ursache hierfür ist der deutlich höhere Energieeintrag, was sich auf die Ionisationsprozesse auswirkt. Die Verwendung einer Sägezahnspannung stellt in Bezug auf den Spannungsanstieg dU/dt eine Kombination aus der Sinus- und der Rechteckspannung dar. Mit dieser Betriebsspannung war es erstmals möglich, in einer Entladungsperiode entsprechend der Spannungsgradienten beide Entladungsformen (APTD und APGD) zu beobachten und zu studieren. Durch die Oberflächenladungsmessung konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass die während eines elektrischen Durchbruchs im Entladungsvolumen transferierte Ladung vollständig auf den Dielektrika akkumuliert wird. Der Vergleich der phasenaufgelösten Oberflächenladungsdichtemessung mit der zeitlichen Integration der Stromdichte zeigt, dass die Akkumulation von Oberflächenladungen instantan mit dem Auftreten eines Strompulses stattfindet. Nach einem Entladungsstrompuls bleiben die Oberflächenladungen unabhängig vom Entladungsmodus auf dem Dielektrikum konstant, bis die Entladung in der nächsten Halbwelle erneut zündet. In der filamentierten Entladung markieren die Oberflächenladungen den Auftreffpunkt der einzelnen Mikroentladungen. Die Oberflächenladungen sind an diesen Stellen stark lokalisiert. Die gemittelten radialen Oberflächenladungsdichteprofile haben gezeigt, dass diese sowohl für die negativen als auch für die positiven Oberflächenladungen einer Gauß-Verteilung folgen. Die volle Halbwertebreite der entsprechenden Oberflächenladungsdichteprofile unterscheidet sich. Die negativen Oberflächenladungen nehmen eine größere Fläche ein als die positiven Oberflächenladungen. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Mikroentladungen über viele Entladungsperioden immer wieder an der gleichen Stelle zünden, wo sich aus einer vorhergehenden Entladung ein lokalisierter Oberflächenladungsfleck entgegengesetzter Polarität befand. Dieses Phänomen wird als Memory-Effekt bezeichnet. Durch zeitlich definiertes Abschalten der Entladung konnten die Lebensdauern von Oberflächenladungen beider Polaritäten auf dem BSO-Kristall gemessen werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Abbau der Oberflächenladungen in zwei Zerfallsprozesse k_1 und k_2 unterteilt ist. Während des Prozesses k_1 nimmt die Oberflächenladungsdichte innerhalb einiger weniger Sekunden deutlich ab. Die Zeitkonstante k_1 ist trotz der photoleitenden Eigenschaft des BSO-Kristalls unabhängig von der Beleuchtungsfrequenz des Kristalls ist. Der zweite deutlich langsamer ablaufende Prozess zeigte hingegen eine starke Abhängigkeit von der Beleuchtungsfrequenz der BSO-Kristalls. Wurde der Kristall kontinuierlich beleuchtet, verschwanden die Oberflächenladungen unabhängig von ihrer Polarität nach wenigen Sekunden vollständig. Je kleiner die Beleuchtungsrate des Kristalls ist, desto länger waren die Oberflächenladungen nachweisbar. Der Zerfallsprozess k_2 beruht auf intrinsischen Transportprozessen. Hierbei wird davon ausgegangen, dass die negativen Oberflächenladungen durch Elektronen nahe der Oberfläche gebildet werden. Die positiven Oberflächenladungen sind Löcher im Valenzband, die durch Elektronen-Ionen-Rekombination entstehen.
The extraction of raw materials in mining, as for example copper, generally requires a separation of the natural resources quarried. In most cases complex ores, mixtures of different minerals and gangue have to be separated in order to enable an economic processing. In particular for the extraction of sulfides, oxides, carbonates, phosphates, but also of coal, froth flotation is mainly used for this purpose, therefore it is considered as the most important separation process in raw material industries. Several billion tons of ores are processed annually. The principle of flotation is based on the surface properties of the mixtures components and the separation efficiency, which decisively determines the required amount of water and various chemicals, if nothing else, is an important criterion in mineral exploration and it also significantly influences the environmental impact of mineral processing. The aim of, this work was to investigate the influence, of, low-temperature plasmas on the mineral surface and, based on the acquired knowledge, to develop and verify strategies that would increase the efficiency of flotation processes through plasma pre-treatment of mineral mixtures. Since these studies are unprecedented, the results presented can be classified as a contribution to application-oriented basic research. Powder of the sulfide minerals, pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S) and molybdenum sulfide (MoS2), were treated with plasmas of a radiofrequency and a microwave discharge and the resulting surface modifications were investigated by structure analysis such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). During the plasma process, the argon/oxygen and argon/hydrogen process gas mixtures used were analyzed by mass spectrometry (MS), taking into account the quantity of gaseous reaction products released, in order to estimate the rate at which chemical reactions occur. Furthermore, Langmuir and thermal probes, as well as different methods of optical emission spectrometry (OES) were utilized, which enabled a characterization of the discharges used with regard to different plasma parameters. It has been shown that sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Ar/O2 plasmas and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in Ar/H2 plasmas are the only reaction products which can be detected by MS during the mineral treatments. Thus, the resulting sulfur rate loss could be time-resolved determined by means of additional calibrations with calibrating gases. Especially at Ar/O2-MW plasma treatments two fundamental mechanisms of mineral modification could be separated by time. Pure plasma-surface interactions at the beginning and, additionally, thermally induced reactions in during the evolution of the treatments. Comparisons regarding the relative sulfur loss during plasma-surface interactions between the investigated minerals have shown a strong influence of the process parameters whereas, under identical conditions, CuFeS2 reacted up to eight and nineteen times faster reacted than FeS2 or Cu2S. This result represents the basis of the strategy to optimize the flotation of the minerals investigated: The selective generation of oxides on the surface of one component in a mixture of sulphide minerals. In particular, at the separation of CuFeS2/FeS2 mixtures by using the oxide collectors Flotinor Fs-2 in a micro flotation cell, a high selectivity could be achieved. The recovery of CuFeS2 amounted to 100 % while less than 10 % of FeS2 was recovered and no other modifying reagents were used. XPS and XRD analyses indicate the possibility that metal oxide are created upon the CuFeS2 surface, while the formation of iron sulfates upon the FeS2 surface prevented the oxide collector adsorption. An increased intensity of the plasma treatment leads to an increased sulphate formation also on CuFeS2, whereas the recovery, and thus the selectivity of the flotation, was reduced again. It could be shown that this effect can be utilized for the separation of, CuFeS2/MoS2 mixtures by using both, oxide and sulfide collectors, because sulfates are not formed on molybdenum sulfide during Ar/O2 plasmas treatments. By means of the plasma diagnostics used the energy input onto the substrate, the gas temperature and the degree of dissociation of molecular gases were estimated and correlations regarding the surface modification have been worked out. Thereby, the region investigated within the parameter space could be enlarged due to the use of different excitation frequencies, 13.56 MHz and 2.45 GHz, and additional insights have been provided. Further studies, beyond the scope of this work, are, nevertheless, required in order to generate a more comprehensive picture of plasma-mineral interactions and to enable an optimal application of the obtained results.
Ziel der Arbeit war die Untersuchung der lokalen und systemischen Entzündungsreaktionen nach intramuskulärer Implantation von Niedertemperatur-Plasmapolymer-modifizierten Titanplättchen (Ti) im Tiermodell Ratte. Ausgangspunkt dafür waren vorherige Zellkultur-Untersuchungen zu Ti-Proben mit einer positiv geladenen Schicht aus plasma-polymerisiertem Allylamin (PPAAm) beziehungsweise einer negativ geladenen Schicht aus plasma-polymerisierter Acrylsäure (PPAAc). Diese In-vitro-Studien ergaben für eine Beschichtung mit PPAAm positive Effekte auf das Wachstum von Osteoblasten sowie für eine Beschichtung mit PPAAc auf die osteogene Differenzierung humaner mesenchymaler Stammzellen. Für die darauf aufbauenden in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten In-vivo-Untersuchungen war es zunächst notwendig, eine Methode zur quantitativen histologischen Untersuchung der lokalen Gewebsreaktionen nach Implantation von Ti-Proben zu etablieren. Deren Evaluierung zeigte eine gute Reproduzierbarkeit der Ergebnisse und damit die Eignung des Bildanalyse-Verfahrens für die weiteren Untersuchungen. Anschließend erfolgten unter Anwendung dieser Methode morphometrische immunhistochemische Untersuchungen der lokalen Entzündungsantwort nach intramuskulärer Implantation von PPAAc- und PPAAm-beschichteten Ti-Plättchen. Hierzu wurden in einer ersten Studie für beide Beschichtungen die Gesamt-Monozyten und -Makrophagen sowie die MHC-Klasse-II-positiven antigen-präsentierenden Zellen im Periimplantatgewebe nach 56 Tagen Implantationsdauer im Vergleich zu unbeschichteten Kontrollproben untersucht. Dabei ergab sich für die PPAAc-beschichteten Ti-Plättchen im Vergleich zu PPAAm-beschichteten Implantaten und Kontrollen eine verstärkte chronische Entzündungsreaktion. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse wurden in einer anschließenden zweiten Studie für drei verschiedene PPAAm-Beschichtungen, die sich hinsichtlich der Plasmaprozessparameter im Duty cycle unterschieden, die Gewebsreaktionen im Kurz- und Langzeitverlauf analysiert. Dafür erfolgte eine Untersuchung der Gesamt-Monozyten und -Makrophagen, der gewebsständigen Makrophagen, der T Lymphozyten und der MHC-Klasse-II-positiven antigen-präsentierenden Zellen 7, 14 und 56 Tage nach Implantation für diese drei PPAAm-Varianten im Vergleich zu Kontrollen. Im Ergebnis waren die lokalen Gewebsreaktionen für die zwei PPAAm-Varianten mit dem höheren Duty cycle im Langzeitverlauf schwächer ausgeprägt als für die PPAAm-Schicht mit dem geringen Duty cycle und die Kontrollen. Dieses Ergebnis stand im Einklang mit entsprechenden Unterschieden in den physikochemischen Schichteigenschaften wie zum Beispiel der Schichtdicke, der Aminogruppendichte und der Proteinadsorption. Darüber hinaus wurden das Serumprofil und die Korrelationen der pro-inflammatorischen Zytokine IL-2 und IFNγ sowie der anti-inflammatorischen Zytokine IL-4 und IL-10 vor sowie wöchentlich für 56 Tage nach Implantation von PPAAc-und PPAAm-beschichteten Implantaten sowie Kontrollen analysiert. Diese Untersuchungen ergaben für die PPAAc-Gruppe in der Spätphase einen gegensätzlichen Verlauf von IL-4 und IL-10 sowie abweichende Korrelationen des IL-10 mit den anderen untersuchten Zytokinen, während in der PPAAm-Gruppe die systemischen Reaktionen und die Korrelationen zwischen den untersuchten Zytokinen mit den Befunden in der Kontrollgruppe vergleichbar waren. Die Gesamtbetrachtung der in dieser Arbeit erhobenen In-vivo-Ergebnisse mit den vorherigen In-Vitro-Befunden zeigt, dass eine positiv geladene PPAAm-Beschichtung einen vielversprechenden Ansatz zur Erzeugung von zelladhäsiven Implantatoberflächen mit dem Ziel einer Verbesserung des Einwachsens von Ti-Implantaten darstellt. Darüber hinaus konnte für die PPAAm-Beschichtung gezeigt werden, dass Variationen in den Plasmaprozessparametern zu Unterschieden in den physikochemischen Eigenschaften und den daraus resultierenden In-vivo-Gewebsreaktionen führen. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit wurden in vier wissenschaftlichen Fachzeitschriften veröffentlicht (Walschus et al. 2011 J Microsc 242:94–99; Schröder et al. 2010 J Adh Sci Technol 24:1191–1205; Hoene et al. 2010 Acta Biomater 6:676–683; Walschus et al. 2012 J Mater Sci Mater Med 23:1299–1307).
Non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma has drawn more and more attention to the field of wound healing research during the last two decades. It is characterized by a unique composition, which includes amongst others free radicals, ions and electrons. Furthermore, non-thermal plasma exhibits temperatures that are below those inducing thermal cell damage. Next to its well-established anti-bacterial properties, plasma can have lethal as well as stimulating effects on mammalian cells. Therefore, the medical application of non-thermal plasma on chronic wounds seems to be a promising tool to enable healing processes. However, less is known about the plasma-mediated induction of intracellular signaling pathways in human immune cells, which play a leading part in the process of wound recovery and removal of pathogens. Therefore, this thesis examined the cellular effects of a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma treatment on human immune cells using the argon plasma jet kinpen 09. Here, the CD4+ T helper cell line Jurkat, the monocyte cell line THP-1 as well as the corresponding primary cells were investigated. First, cell survival and apoptosis induction was assessed in response to non-thermal plasma treatment by growth curves and flow cytometric assays. On the one hand it could be shown that primary cells are more susceptible to plasma treatment than the respective cell lines. On the other hand, monocytes responded less sensitive to plasma exposure than lymphocytes. Furthermore, this thesis outlined the impact of non-thermal plasma treatment on the gene expression level of immune cells. Therefore, DNA microarray analysis was performed with the cell lines Jurkat and THP-1. It became obvious that plasma exposure modulated the expression of several genes in both cell types. Differential expression of distinct target genes was further validated by quantitative PCR in the immune cell lines. Here, elevated gene expression levels of JUN and FOS in Jurkat cells and increased transcription of JUND in THP-1 cells in response to plasma treatment were made visible. JUN, FOS and JUND are components of the transcription factor AP-1, which is involved amongst others in gene expression of IL-8 and HMOX-1. Consequently, transcriptional induction of the inflammatory cytokine IL-8 as well as the enzymes HMOX-1 and GSR was detected in plasma-treated THP-1 cells. In addition, alterations in the protein activation levels were analyzed in plasma-treated Jurkat, THP-1 cells and primary monocytes. Since some of the identified target genes are known to be associated with the MAPK pathways, the regulation of these cascades was further investigated by western blot analysis. In all investigated cell types the pro-proliferative signaling molecules ERK 1/2 and MEK 1/2 as well as the pro-apoptotic signaling proteins p38 MAPK and JNK 1/2 were activated in a plasma treatment time dependent manner. In contrast to Jurkat and primary monocytes, the anti-apoptotic HSP27 was only induced in THP-1 cells in response to plasma exposure. Moreover, modulation of cytokine production and secretion was examined in the different immune cell types and co-cultured THP-1 and HaCaT keratinocytes by ELISA or flow cytometry. While Jurkat cells showed no plasma-mediated regulation of cytokine expression, THP-1 cells revealed an increased IL-8 secretion after long plasma time duration (360 s). Additionally, the intracellular expression levels of IL-6 and IL-8 were modulated in primary monocytes by plasma exposure. While short plasma treatment caused no alteration of the number of cells expressing IL-8 an up-regulation of the intracellular IL-6 level occurred after 30 s of plasma treatment. Long plasma treatment times resulted in a significant decrease of the intracellular IL-8 and IL-6 production levels. Furthermore, co-cultured THP-1 and HaCaT cells as well as mono-cultured THP-1 and HaCaT cells were examined regarding their cytokine secretion profile. Here, cells treated with plasma (180 s) as well as LPS and plasma (180 s and LPS) were compared with untreated cells. IL-6, IL-8 and GM-CSF secretion was induced by both plasma and plasma combined with LPS treatment in mono-cultivated HaCaT cells and co-cultured cells. Though, the highest cytokine secretion levels were reached in the plasma and LPS exposed co-culture. In contrast, mono-cultivated THP-1 cells only showed an increased secretion of IL-6, IL-8 and TNFa after incubation with plasma together with LPS exposed medium. In conclusion, this study revealed for the first time the non-thermal plasma-modulated expression of numerous genes and cytokines and the activation state of various signaling cascades in human immune cells. Thus, it contributes to gain a better understanding of the immune-modulatory impacts of plasma that might promote the wound healing process.