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Neurogenese in adulten Ratten ist vor allem in der Subventrikularzone und im Gyrus dentatus des Hippocampus aktiv und kann durch gezielte Aktivierung nach einem Schlaganfall zu einer verbesserten Funktionalität führen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob auch in gealterten Ratten eine Stimulation der endogenen Neurogenese nach Schlaganfall die Erholung verbessert. Dazu wurde das Neurogenese-verstärkende Pentylentetrazol zum ersten Mal auf seine Wirkung nach Schlaganfall in einem gealterten Tiermodell untersucht. Dazu wurde in 12-Monate alten Sprague-Dawley-Ratten eine transiente fokale Ischämie per Okklusion der mittleren Hirnschlagader (MCAO) ausgelöst und die endogene Neurogenese mit subkonvulsivem Pentylentetrazol verstärkt. Die funktionelle Erholung wurde mit mehreren Verhaltenstests über einen Zeitraum von sieben Wochen überwacht. Nach dem Ablauf des Überlebenszeitraums wurde von den gewonnenen Hirngeweben eine globale Genexpressionsanalyse vom Infarktareal sowie immunhistochemische Färbungen für Zellproliferation und neuronale Vorläuferzellen im Infarktgebiet und der ipsilateralen Subventrikularzone durchgeführt. Die Verhaltenstests Acht-Arm-Labyrinth und Schräge zeigten eine signifikant verbesserte Erholung bei Tieren mit postischämischer Pentylentetrazolbehandlung. Die immunhistochemische Färbung für den Neurogenese-Marker Doublecortin ergab eine signifikante Steigerung der Neuroblastenanzahl in der Subventrikularzone. Im Infarktkerngebiet konnte signifikant mehr beta-3- Tubulin-positives axonales Aussprossen detektiert werden. Die globale Genexpressionsanalyse wies auf signifikante Veränderungen von Genen der Inflammationsreaktion und der Neurogenese hin. Insgesamt zeigen die vorliegenden Ergebnisse, dass eine postischämische Stimulation der Neurogenese mit Pentylentetrazol auf die funktionelle Erholung einen positiven Einfluss hat.
The learning theory of panic disorder differs between panic attacks and anxious apprehension as distinct emotional states. Acute panic is accompanied by extreme fear, experience of strong body symptoms reflecting autonomic surge and flight tendencies. In contrast, anxious apprehension is associated with hypervigilance towards bodily sensations and increased distress when subtle somatic symptoms are identified. Following animal models, these clinical entities reflect different stages of defensive reactivity depending upon the imminence of interoceptive or exteroceptive threat cues with lowest distance to threat during panic attacks. We tested this model by investigating the dynamics of defensive reactivity in a large group of patients suffering from panic disorder and agoraphobia (PD/AG) prior to a multicenter controlled clinical trial. Three hundred forty-five patients participated in a standardized behavioral avoidance test (being entrapped in a small, dark chamber for 10 minutes). Defensive reactivity was assessed measuring avoidance and escape behavior, self reports of anxiety and panic symptoms, autonomic arousal (heart rate and skin conductance), and potentiation of the startle reflex before and during the exposure period of the behavioral avoidance test. While 125 patients showed strong anxious apprehension during the task (as indexed by increased reports of anxiety, elevated physiological arousal, and startle potentiation), 72 patients escaped from the test chamber. Active escape was initiated at the peak of the autonomic surge accompanied by an inhibition of the startle response as predicted by the animal model. These physiological responses were observed during 34 reported panic attacks as well. We found evidence that defensive reactivity in PD/AG patients is dynamically organized ranging from anxious apprehension to panic with increasing proximity of interoceptive threat. Importantly, the patients differed quite substantially according defensive reactivity during the behavioral avoidance test despite all patients received the same principal diagnosis. These differences can be explained in part by differences in the disposition according to two genetic variants previously associated with panic disorder. Patients carrying the risk variant of a polymorphism in the neuropeptide S receptor gene showed an overall increased heart rate during the whole behavioral avoidance test reflecting an enhanced sympathomimetic activation and consequently arousal level. During the entrapment situation in which heart rate further increased over an already elevated baseline level, risk variant carriers were prone to experience more panic symptoms. This is in line with the learning perspective of panic disorder, postulating that internal cues of elevated arousal increase the chance of experiencing another panic attack once they have been associated with aversive responses. Furthermore, the risk variant of a polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene was observed to augment the occurrence of panic attacks and escape behavior preparation. In addition, we find evidence that suggest an enhanced resistance to corrective learning experiences as indicated by a lack of a reduction of avoiding and escaping behavior during repeated test chamber exposures in wait-list control patients carrying the risk gene variant. Both effects may strengthen the learning mechanism hypothesized to be involved in the pathogenesis of panic disorder. Exteroceptive and interoceptive cues previously associated with the initial panic attack might trigger subsequent attacks in risk allele carriers more rapidly while simultaneously the opportunity to dissolve once established associations due to contradictory experiences is limited. Now, differential dispositions regarding defensive reactivity in PD/AG patients has to be linked to mechanisms supposed to be involved in exposure based therapy. First outcome evaluations of the clinical trial indicated that a behavioral therapy variant suggested to be linked with higher fear activation during exposure exercises is more effective than another. Further analyses have to proof whether those patients showing a clear specific fear response during the behavioral avoidance test benefit more than others from exposure based therapy.