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Clostridioides difficile is an intestinal human pathogen that uses the opportunity of a depleted microbiota to cause an infection. It is known, that the composition of the intestinal bile acid cocktail has a great impact on the susceptibility toward a C. difficile infection. However, the specific response of growing C. difficile cells to diverse bile acids on the molecular level has not been described yet. In this study, we recorded proteome signatures of shock and long-term (LT) stress with the four main bile acids cholic acid (CA), chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), deoxycholic acid (DCA), and lithocholic acid (LCA). A general overlapping response to all tested bile acids could be determined particularly in shock experiments which appears plausible in the light of their common steroid structure. However, during LT stress several proteins showed an altered abundance in the presence of only a single or a few of the bile acids indicating the existence of specific adaptation mechanisms. Our results point at a differential induction of the groEL and dnaKJgrpE chaperone systems, both belonging to the class I heat shock genes. Additionally, central metabolic pathways involving butyrate fermentation and the reductive Stickland fermentation of leucine were effected, although CA caused a proteome signature different from the other three bile acids. Furthermore, quantitative proteomics revealed a loss of flagellar proteins in LT stress with LCA. The absence of flagella could be substantiated by electron microscopy which also indicated less flagellated cells in the presence of DCA and CDCA and no influence on flagella formation by CA. Our data break down the bile acid stress response of C. difficile into a general and a specific adaptation. The latter cannot simply be divided into a response to primary and secondary bile acids, but rather reflects a complex and variable adaptation process enabling C. difficile to survive and to cause an infection in the intestinal tract.
Under hyperosmotic conditions, bacteria accumulate compatible solutes through synthesis or import. Bacillus subtilis imports a large set of osmostress protectants via five osmotically controlled transport systems (OpuA to OpuE). Biosynthesis of the particularly effective osmoprotectant glycine betaine requires the exogenous supply of choline. While OpuB is rather specific for choline, OpuC imports a broad spectrum of compatible solutes, including choline and glycine betaine. One previously mapped antisense RNA of B. subtilis, S1290, exhibits strong and transient expression in response to a suddenly imposed salt stress. It covers the coding region of the opuB operon and is expressed from a strictly SigB-dependent promoter. By inactivation of this promoter and analysis of opuB and opuC transcript levels, we discovered a time-delayed osmotic induction of opuB that crucially depends on the S1290 antisense RNA and on the degree of the imposed osmotic stress. Time-delayed osmotic induction of opuB is apparently caused by transcriptional interference of RNA-polymerase complexes driving synthesis of the converging opuB and S1290 mRNAs. When our data are viewed in an ecophysiological framework, it appears that during the early adjustment phase of B. subtilis to acute osmotic stress, the cell prefers to initially rely on the transport activity of the promiscuous OpuC system and only subsequently fully induces opuB. Our data also reveal an integration of osmostress-specific adjustment systems with the SigB-controlled general stress response at a deeper level than previously appreciated.
Die McsB Argininkinase spielt in grampositiven Bakterien wie Bazillen, Staphylokokken und Listerien durch die Phosphorylierung von Guanidinogruppen eine gesonderte Rolle innerhalb der Familie der Kinasen. Insbesondere während der bakteriellen Stressadaptation scheint diese Art der posttranslationalen Proteinmodifikation von großer Bedeutung zu sein. Um die Funktionsweise der McsB Kinasefunktion in Verbindung mit dessen McsA Modulatorprotein besser verstehen zu können, wurden konservierte Arginine gegen Lysin substituiert. Auf diese Weise konnten entscheidende intramolekulare Positionen identifiziert werden, die für die Ausbildung der Autokinase- bzw. Phospho-Transferase Aktivität von Bedeutung sind. Diese konnten darüber hinaus in Einklang mit der McsB Struktur (Suskiewicz et al., 2019) gebracht werden.
Eines der Zielproteine für die McsB vermittelte Argininphosphorylierung (Arg-P) ist dabei der CtsR Regulator, welcher die Genexpression der Clp-Maschinerie in Bacillus subtilis reprimiert. Mit Hilfe globaler Transkriptomanalysen war es möglich, neben den bereits etablierten Zielgenen auch eine Art fine-tuning Regulation des MhqR Regulons aufzuzeigen.
Zwei weitere Proteine, die durch McsB vermittelte Arg-Ps beeinflusst werden, sind der Modulator der generellen Stressantwort, MgsR, und die intrinsisch inaktive Glutamat-Dehydrogenase GudB. Insbesondere GudB fällt durch die Identifikation von 15 Phospho-sites auf, wohingegen lediglich zwei Arg-P Bindungsstellen für MgsR nachgewiesen werden konnten (Elsholz et al., 2012; Schmidt et al., 2014; Trentini et al., 2016). Dennoch ist die GudB Stabilität nur geringfügig durch die McsB Kinasefunktion beeinflusst, wohingegen die MgsR Degradation entscheidend durch Arg-Ps beeinflusst scheint. Durch die Substitution der Arginine von MgsR gegen Glutamat wurde eine Art Phospho-Mimikry integriert. So konnten die Auswirkungen auf Regulatoraktivität und Stabilität von MgsR durch mögliche Arg-Ps im Detail untersucht werden.
In diesem Zusammenhang wurden durch detaillierte Untersuchungen der MgsR Degradation zusätzliche Informationen zur Funktionsweise von McsB als Adapterprotein gesammelt. Dieses legten die Vermutung nahe, dass McsB nicht nur als ClpC-Adapterprotein fungiert, sondern darüber hinaus auch die ClpX-abhängige Proteindegradation unterstützt.
Escherichia coli has been commonly used as a platform for recombinant protein production and accounts for approximately 30% of current biopharmaceuticals on the market. Nowadays, many recombinant proteins require post-translational modifications which E. coli normally cannot facilitate. Therefore, novel technological advancements are unceasingly being developed to improve the E. coli expression system. In this work, some of the most recently engineered platforms for the production of disulfide bond-containing proteins were used to study the E. coli proteome under heterologous protein production stress. The effects of protein secretion via the Sec and Tat translocation pathways were examined using a comparative LC-MS/MS analysis. The E. coli proteome responds to foreign protein production by activation of several overlapping stress responses with a high degree of interaction. In consequence, a number of important cellular processes such as cellular metabolism, protein transport, redox state of the cytoplasm and membrane structure are altered by the production stress. These changes lead to the reduction of cellular growth and recombinant product yields. Resolving the identified bottlenecks will increase the efficiency of recombinant protein expression processes in E. coli.