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Bioactive lipids or lipid mediators influence numerous processes like the reproduction, the bone turnover, the pain perception, the cardiovascular function and the immune system. Eicosanoids and oxylipins are parts of the immunomodulatory lipid mediators, which can be synthesized from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) by enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Typical members of eicosanoids are prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The properties of bioactive lipids include the activation of inflammatory reactions as well as the support of resolution. Like hormones, they act locally restricted and in low concentrations. Further bioactive lipids exist i.e. intermediates of the sphingolipid class. The biosynthesis of some of these compounds like the prostaglandins can be influenced by different drugs whereas for other groups of lipid selective inhibitors are still missing. Their impact on inflammatory processes and against chronic diseases has already been analyzed, while studies in context with infection are largely limited. Infection of the upper respiratory tract caused by viral and bacterial pathogens constitute a huge burden for the human healthcare. The main pathogens are the Influenza A virus (IAV), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) and Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes). Besides mono-infection with one of these pathogens, frequently occurring bacto-viral co-infections exist, which negatively influence the etiopathology. The main task of the immune system is the detection and the elimination of pathogens, which can essentially be affected by lipid mediators. Their instability due to oxidizability, the existence of regioisomers and the low abundance of eicosanoids and other oxylipins are the main problems for their analytical measurement. The mayor objective of this dissertation was the establishment of a suitable analytical method for selected lipid mediators and the detection of infection-related changes. The separation and detection was performed by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with triple quad mass spectrometry. This combination is called tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The MS parameters were optimized for approximately 30 lipid mediators by use of chemical standards and the detection was achieved by dynamic multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Furthermore, the spatial resolution of selected sphingolipids was analyzed in tissue samples using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MS-Imaging). Concerning the HPLC-MS/MS detection, an MS method was established and optimized with standard compounds. Another crucial part of the establishment was the extraction of bioactive lipids from the different sampling materials. Whereas well tested protocols exist for the extraction and detection of lipid mediators, such protocols for MALDI-MS-Imaging are still limited due to the novelty of this measurement. Ultimately, robust and reproducible protocols for both techniques that were used for the analysis of a broad array of samples from infection experiments were established for both techniques. The analyses of infected cell culture, mice and pigs revealed infection-related perturbations of host lipid mediator levels. Depending on the scientific issue, the sample types cell pellets, lungs, spleens, livers, blood plasmas, pawns including bones or bronchoalveolar lavages were analyzed. For MALDI-MS-Imaging, the spatial distribution of sphingolipids in lung and spleen was detected. The present dissertation includes four coherent research scopes, in which the pathogen impact on host-derived lipid mediators was detected with the above mentioned analytical methods. The infection models epithelial cells (article II), mouse (article III and IV) and pig (article I) – the latter as the most human like model - showed different aspects of the host-pathogen interaction. The analysis of samples from IAV infection for all three hosts revealed a couple of similarities for some oxylipins that were also described in human infections. Additionally, cell culture and mouse samples from mono-infections as well as co-infections with the pathogens S. aureus and S. pneumoniae were measured. In particular for the bacterial mono- and co-infections, these are the first published results with aspects of infection related changes of lipid mediators. The additional spatial resolution of the sphingolipid intermediates sphingosine 1-phosphate and ceramide 1-phosphate revealed important new insights into their tissue distribution and changes during co-infection. Article I describes the IAV-specific oxylipin changes in the pig (german landrace) as infection model. Therefore, the sample types lung, spleen, blood plasma, and bronchoalveolar lavage from infected animals at different time points after infection were analyzed and compared with samples from uninfected pigs. Mainly in the lung and the spleen, increased amounts of certain lipid mediators were observed. These changes coincide well with already described alterations in humans and mice. Furthermore, the analysis of different sample material provided an overview about appropriate sample types. Surprisingly, many perturbations were detected in the spleen, which itself was uninfected. Based on the local reaction of lipid mediators, most studies concentrate on sample material with close contact to side of infection. Therefore, this dissertation reveals new insights into a form of systemic immune response. Besides the use of animals with a complex immune system for infection experiments, human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) were mono- and co-infected with the pathogens S. aureus, S. pneumoniae and IAV as described in article II. Such cells are the initial barrier for and first contact site with pathogens and thus the comprehension of this host-pathogen interaction is of essential importance. Most changes were detected during pneumococcal infection. Furthermore, the analyzed infections with bacterial pathogens differed from IAV infection by an increased synthesis of 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE). For further infections with the above mentioned pathogens, the mouse was used as an infection model. Besides infections affecting the respiratory tract, also the impact of an S. pyogenes infection in different mice strains was analyzed and described in article III. Infection-related changes in prostaglandins, which are involved in bone turnover in swollen pawns as well as enhanced amounts of sepsis- and arthritis-associated lipid mediators were detected, in case arthritis had been induced prior to infection. Furthermore, increased amounts of 20-HETE could be observed for such severe infections. An enhanced biosynthesis of 20-HETE was further confirmed in a high-pathogenic S. aureus LUG2012 infection in article IV for all examined sample types. In this last article of this dissertation, bacterial and viral infections in mice were analyzed similar to those described in article II. Mainly IAV-specific lipid mediator alterations were detected, which are in accordance with the findings of the infected pigs. The additional MALDI-MS-Imaging measurements revealed so far unknown accumulation of ceramide 1-phosphate in lung and spleen as well as enrichment in the red pulp of the spleen. In summary, this dissertation provides substantial lipid mediator profiles for infections in three different model systems with selected bacterial and viral pathogens. The obtained data constitute a suitable basis for continuative research projects, in which the influence of single bioactive lipids on the course of infection could be examined in more detail.

Herein, we report the synthesis of a series of push–pull imines by considering cyclic diamino substituent at the C‐centre and fluoroaryl substituent at the N‐centre. This has been achieved by a selective aromatic nucleophilic substitution of different fluoroarenes by N‐H‐substituted N‐heterocyclic imines (NHIs) at ambient conditions without any additional reagent. Solid‐state molecular structure analysis reveals the elongation of the central C–N bond of the imine functionality, which is consistent with the push–pull nature of these imines. The push–pull nature of these imines is further validated by computational studies.

Abstract The 10–23 DNAzyme is an artificially developed Mg2+‐dependent catalytic oligonucleotide that can cleave an RNA substrate in a sequence‐specific fashion. In this study, new split 10–23 DNAzymes made of two nonfunctional fragments, one of which carries a boronic acid group at its 5′ end, while the other has a ribonucleotide at its 3′ end, were designed. Herein it is demonstrated that the addition of Mg2+ ions leads to assembly of the fragments, which in turn induces the formation of a new boronate internucleoside linkage that restores the DNAzyme activity. A systematic evaluation identified the best‐performing system. The results highlight key features for efficient control of DNAzyme activity through the formation of boronate linkages.

Blood platelets are primary major players in the coagulation cascade, that act upon damage in blood vessels at the subendothelial surface. During this process, platelets change their shape, release granules and aggregate by cross-linking of integrin αIIbβ3 via fibrinogen. The heterodimeric transmembrane receptor integrin αIIbβ3 is highly expressed on platelets and its regulation is bidirectional. Inside-out signaling leads to increased affinity for ligands due to dramatic rearrangements in the integrin conformation changing from an inactive bent conformation to an extended, high-affinity conformation. The swing-out motion of the integrin head domain enables binding of ligands, e.g. fibrinogen, resulting in outside-in signaling guiding kinase activation, shape change, platelet aggregation and spreading, subsequently. Agonists (e.g. thrombin) and other triggers (e.g. shear stress) promote the activity of platelets, making the study of specific proteins delicate. Therefore, this PhD thesis describes a biomimetic system used to study αIIbβ3 membrane receptors. Integrin αIIbβ3 was successfully reconstituted into liposomes and characterized by biophysical and molecular biological methods (e.g. dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy and flow cytometry). The fusion of liposomes to a solid substrate allows the analysis of potential activation triggers and interaction partners concerning their role in integrin αIIbβ3 activation in a lipid bilayer. Among others, quartz-crystal microbalance measurements show that divalent ions and clinically relevant drugs (e.g. unfractionated heparin and quinine), known to be involved in immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), are certainly candidates which induce integrin activation and minor changes in protein secondary structure. In addition, protein corona formation during contact of nanoparticles with blood components, such as fibrinogen, as well as their interaction with artificial platelet model membranes containing integrins were studied. Moreover, lipid environment can be strongly controlled as integrin activation is dependent on the ratio of liquid-ordered and disordered phases within the membrane. Eventually, by exclusion of disturbances of complex external and internal factors, the established system enables the interaction analysis of various substances with receptors under physiological conditions. In contrast, these disturbances are required to understand the complex machinery of cellular processes in vivo. Hence, an expression platform, on the basis of HEK293 cells, was established to study not only the interaction of integrin αIIbβ3 with cytoskeletal networks, but also the impact of mutations on integrin resulting in a disease-like phenotype. Mutations known to induce Glanzmann thrombasthenia (GT) symptoms, were introduced and led to different mechanical properties of integrin-expressing cells, especially during cell adhesion cells. Thereby, generation of biological and medically-relevant processes combined with the biophysical setup contribute to understand disease mechanisms as well as the action of therapeutic agents in diseases such as GT and ITP.

The aims of this thesis were the identification and development of whole-cell biocatalysts for the regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of steroids, including hormones and bile acids by P450 monooxygenases. Steroids and their derivatives are applied as therapeutic agents. The chemical synthesis of such compounds depends on multi-step procedures, in a stereo- and regiospecific manner involving the protection and deprotection of functional groups and toxic reagents and intermediates. In this thesis, different P450 monooxygenases were investigated as ‘bio-based’ alternatives to chemical catalysts for the late-stage functionalization of steroids and bile acids and engineered by directed evolution procedures towards desired transformation activities. In Article I, the 16α-hydroxylation activity of the bovine CYP17A1 was enhanced by protein engineering to improve the transformation of progesterone into 16α-hydroxyprogesterone in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Article II follows the same line of research and targets the selective synthesis of bile acid derivatives in Escherichia coli (E. coli) whole-cells. The P450 monooxygenase CYP107D1 (OleP) from Streptomyces antibioticus (S. antibioticus) was identified, which selectively hydroxylates bile acids like lithocholic acid (LCA) and deoxycholic acid (DCA) at the 6β-position, yielding murideoxycholic acid (MDCA), a gallstone solubilizing agent, and 3α-,6β-,12α-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid, respectively. The utilization of OleP as catalyst resulted in shorter synthesis routes for both compounds and additional in a higher yield for MDCA. Building on the results of Article II and the protein engineering approach from Article I, Article III deals with the switch of regioselectivity of the identified CYP107D1 from 6β- to 7β-hydroxylation to form the therapeutic agent ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) from LCA by direct hydroxylation. Following a rational protein engineering strategy, a variant with nearly perfect selectivity for UDCA formation was found. Until today, UDCA is either isolated from bile of catheterised farmed bears or produced semisynthetically through low-yielding multistep reactions starting from cholic acid (CA). Article III presents the first reported enzyme for the direct 7β-hydroxylation of LCA to UDCA.

This thesis deals with the process considerations and optimizations of a whole-cell enzyme cascade reaction for the synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone. The enzyme cascade synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone has been conceptualized and verified using a dehydrogenase and a monooxygenase. The advantage of this enzyme combination is the closed-loop co-factor regeneration. Dehydrogenase and monooxygenase expressed in discrete whole cells were applied in defined ratio to conceptualize the cascade reaction. This necessitates the use of separate co-factor regeneration system due to impermeability of the E. coli cell wall to the co-factor. Article I deal with the design and optimization of dehydrogenase and monooxygenase co-expression in a same E. coli cell. In Article II, the cascade reaction was upscaled and a fed-batch process was realized. Following which, the important reaction metrices were analyzed and optimized. Article III extends the two-enzyme cascade with a lipase. The use of lipase helps to overcome the product inhibition of monooxygenase by ɛ-caprolactone.

Die akute Pankreatitis ist eine der häufigsten nicht malignen gastrointestinalen Erkrankungen, die zu Krankenhausaufenthalten führt. Sie ist als Selbstverdau des Pankreas durch seine eigenen Proteasen wie z.B. Trypsin, Elastase und Chymotrypsin definiert. Als Ursprung der Erkrankung wird die frühzeitige intrazelluläre Aktivierung dieser Verdauungsenzyme angesehen. Dies führt zum Zelltod der Azinuszellen und zur Schädigung des Gewebes. Während der akuten Pankreatitis kommt es in 20% der Fälle zu einem schweren Verlauf der Erkrankung, der mit Organversagen in der Lunge und den Nieren assoziiert ist. Es ist bekannt, dass es zu einer Entzündungsreaktion kommt, bei der große Mengen an Zytokinen ausgeschüttet werden. Leukozyten infiltrieren das Pankreas und verstärken den Gewebeschaden. Es kommt zur Freisetzung von DAMPs, die das angeborene und adaptive Immunsystem aktivieren. Bislang ist nicht gut untersucht, wie das Immunsystem den schweren Verlauf der akuten Pankreatitis beeinflusst und es gibt wenig Theorien über den Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren. In dieser Arbeit lag der Fokus auf dem Organschaden in Lunge und Niere und die Wirkung von Interleukin 33 (IL33) auf die Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems und deren Einwanderung in verschiedene Organe während der schweren akuten Pankreatitis im Mausmodell. Die schwere akute Pankreatitis wurde mittels Gangligatur und einmaliger Gabe von Caerulein an Tag 2 nach Gangligatur induziert. An Tag 3 nach Induktion wurden die Mäuse getötet und die Organe wurden für weitere Analysen entnommen. Am dritten Tag nach Induktion der Pankreatitis kam es zu einem Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren. In der Lunge fand sich eine Verdickung der Alveolarsepten und eine Verdichtung des Gewebes sowie eine Infiltration von Leukozyten und ein Ödem. In der Niere waren ebenfalls strukturelle Veränderungen zu finden und eine Infiltration von Leukozyten war zu beobachten. In durchflusszytometrischen Analysen der Lunge konnte beobachtet werden, dass CD11b+CD62L+ Monozyten während der akuten Pankreatitis signifikant anstiegen. Mittels RT-DC wurde gezeigt, dass diese Monozyten an Tag 3 signifikant an Größe zugenommen hatten. Mit einer CD11b Färbungen von Lungen und Nieren konnte die Infiltration durch Monozyten bestätigt werden. Unter einer Blockade von Monozyten durch systemische Gabe von anti-CCR2-Antikörpern verringerte sich die Schädigung in Lunge und Niere während der Pankreatitis signifikant. Diese Daten legen nahe, dass der Organschaden in der schweren akuten Pankreatitis durch infiltrierende Monozyten verursacht wird, die über CD62L (L-Selektin) an die Gefäßwände binden und über ihre Größe Gefäße verstopfen, was in den Kapillaren zur Ischämie führt. In vitro sezernierten Makrophagen, die mit CCK stimulierten Azinuszellen co-inkubiert wurden, IL33. Im Mausmodell wurde IL33 mittels sST2 blockiert, was die Schädigung des Pankreas in der Pankreatitis reduzierte. In IL33-depletierten Tieren fand sich im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ein geringerer Lungenschaden aber eine unveränderte Nierenschädigung. Somit scheint IL33 eine Rolle bei der Monozyten-vermittelten Organschädigung in der Pankreatitis zu spielen, die sich auf Grund von kompensatorischen Regulationsmechanismen im globalen IL33 Knock-out weniger gut belegen lässt als nach IL33 Inhibition. Die Hemmung von IL33 zur Behandlung der akuten Pankreatitis stellt somit ein vielversprechendes Therapieprinzip dar.

The leading idea of this thesis is to study the effects of (i) membrane composition and (ii) membrane environment (aqueous phases) on the redox properties of membrane-confined redox active compounds. For solutions, it is known since long, how strong solvents affect the redox properties of dissolved redox active species. However, for membranes this question has not yet been addressed, although it can be supposed that such effects may be important to understand the role of membrane-confined redox active compounds in biological systems. To interrogate this problem, a monolayer model was chosen. It consists of a lipid monolayer with embedded menaquinones on mercury electrodes. Since ion transfer across membranes is also a crucial question, in the first part of this project, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was studied as a new redox probe for transferring anions and cation between an organic and an aqueous phase. The important findings of this thesis are: (i) accessing the ion pair equilibrium constant of anions and cations with DPPH redox probe as a model study using the three-phase electrochemistry, (ii) the redox potentials of menaquinone-4, -7, and -9 in 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) monolayers and the acidity constants of menaquinones (MK’s) in membranes monolayer model, and (iii) the effects of membrane composition and the aqueous environment on the thermodynamics and kinetics of MK’s in membrane models.

G-quadruplexes (G4s) have been in the focus of research in the last decades for their regulatory roles in vivo and for their use in nano- and biotechnology. However, an understanding of the various factors that drive a particular quadruplex fold remains limited, challenging rational therapeutic targeting and design of these tetrahelical structures. In this regard, insights from modified G-quadruplexes may help to deepen our knowledge of G-quadruplex structure. In this dissertation, sugar-modified guanosine analogs are exploited for their altered conformational preferences regarding both glycosidic bond angle and sugar pucker by their incorporation into different syn positions of the G-core of a model G-quadruplex. Induced structural perturbations as characterized by NMR spectroscopy range from a local change in tetrad polarity to a complete refolding into an unusual structure with a V-shaped loop, a unique G4 structural element in the focus of this work. Detailed conformational analysis of the introduced G analogs and high-resolution structures of the modified quadruplexes reveal a complex interplay of glycosidic torsion angle, sugar pucker preferences and local interactions, which may all play a leading role in driving G4 folding.

Abstract Methylation of free hydroxyl groups is an important modification for flavonoids. It not only greatly increases absorption and oral bioavailability of flavonoids, but also brings new biological activities. Flavonoid methylation is usually achieved by a specific group of plant O‐methyltransferases (OMTs) which typically exhibit high substrate specificity. Here we investigated the effect of several residues in the binding pocket of the Clarkia breweri isoeugenol OMT on the substrate scope and regioselectivity against flavonoids. The mutation T133M, identified as reported in our previous publication, increased the activity of the enzyme against several flavonoids, namely eriodictyol, naringenin, luteolin, quercetin and even the isoflavonoid genistein, while a reduced set of amino acids at positions 322 and 326 affected both, the activity and the regioselectivity of the methyltranferase. On the basis of this work, methylated flavonoids that are rare in nature were produced in high purity.

Abstract Environmentally‐friendly processes for the manufacturing of valuable industrial compounds like ω‐hydroxy fatty acids (ω‐OHFAs) are highly desirable. Herein, we present such an approach by establishing a two‐step enzymatic cascade reaction for the production of 2,15,16‐trihydroxy hexadecanoic acid (THA). Starting with the easily accessible natural compound ustilagic acid (UA) that is secreted by the corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis, the recombinantly expressed esterase BS2 from Bacillus subtilis and the commercial β‐glucosidase from almonds were applied yielding 86 % product. Both hydrolases do not require expensive cofactors, making the process economically attractive. Additionally, no harmful solvents are required, so that the product THA can be labelled natural to be used in food and cosmetic products.

The aim of our research is a stereoselective synthesis development of 4-aminocyclohexanol by the application of a keto reductase (KRED) and an amine transaminase (ATA). 4-Aminocyclohexanol is a valuable precursor for active pharmaceutical ingredients, for example, lomibuvir (a HCV protease inhibitor), ambroxol (a secretolytic agent) and other bioactive molecules. Today, the trans-4-aminocyclohexanol is accessed via Ni-catalyzed synthetic procedure giving moderate yields. In our project we perform cis- and trans-4-aminocyclohexanol synthesis from 1,4-cyclohexanedione (a bio-based precursor) by an one-pot approach combining sequentially a KRED and an ATA as catalysts. For this, we envisaged two multistep enzymatic procedures. The route A would involve 4-hydroxycyclohexanone formation from 1,4-cyclohexanedione via a KRED-catalyzed monoreduction and a further transamination mediated by an ATA towards 4-aminocyclohexanol. The route B would consist of switching the steps of the previous sequential approach, that is, a monoamination of the diketone to yield 4-aminocyclohexanone, and the subsequent reduction of the remaining carbonyl group. Only route A turned out to be feasible, and we performed 4-aminocyclohexanol synthesis at the preparative scale in the sequential and tandem modes. Depending on the ATA, both isomers can be obtained.

Abstract A N‐heterocyclic olefin (NHO), a terminal alkene selectively activates aromatic C−F bonds without the need of any additional catalyst. As a result, a straightforward methodology was developed for the formation of different fluoroaryl‐substituted alkenes in which the central carbon–carbon double bond is in a twisted geometry.

Abstract Over the last years, there has been an enormous increase in the knowledge on koi herpesvirus (KHV), koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD), pathogenesis and virus variants. Different KHV lineages have clearly been identified, possible genomic changes during replication in different cell cultures at different temperatures but also in several hosts have been identified, a persistent stage of infection has been specified and it has been shown that infection with KHV is not host specific at all, but KHVD is. Additionally, it has been shown that it is possible to combat KHVD by immunization with inactivated and attenuated live vaccines using different delivery systems but also to benefit from alternative treatments with e.g. exopolysaccharids obtained from Arthrospira platensis.

The hirudin‐like factor 1 (HLF1) of Hirudo medicinalis belongs to a new class of leech‐derived factors. In previous investigations, HLF1 did not exhibit anticoagulatory activities. Here, we describe the analysis of natural and synthetic variants of HLF1 and HLF‐Hyb, a yet uncharacterized member of the HLF family. Modifications within the N terminus of HLF1 have a strong impact on its activity. Some variants of HLF1 exhibit thrombin‐inhibiting activity comparable to hirudins, whereas others have reduced or no activity. The analyses of HLF‐Hyb variants revealed a strong impact of the central globular domain on activity. Our results indicate a comparable mode of action of hirudins and thrombin‐inhibiting HLF variants. Finally, we propose and discuss criteria for classifying hirudins and HLFs.

Abstract A DNA G‐quadruplex adopting a (3+1) hybrid structure was modified in two adjacent syn positions of the antiparallel strand with anti‐favoring 2′‐deoxy‐2′‐fluoro‐riboguanosine (FrG) analogues. The two substitutions promoted a structural rearrangement to a topology with the 5′‐terminal G residue located in the central tetrad and the two modified residues linked by a V‐shaped zero‐nucleotide loop. Strikingly, whereas a sugar pucker in the preferred north domain is found for both modified nucleotides, the FrG analogue preceding the V‐loop is forced to adopt the unfavored syn conformation in the new quadruplex fold. Apparently, a preferred C3′‐endo sugar pucker within the V‐loop architecture outweighs the propensity of the FrG analogue to adopt an anti glycosidic conformation. Refolding into a V‐loop topology is likewise observed for a sequence modified at corresponding positions with two riboguanosine substitutions. In contrast, 2′‐F‐arabinoguanosine analogues with their favored south‐east sugar conformation do not support formation of the V‐loop topology. Examination of known G‐quadruplexes with a V‐shaped loop highlights the critical role of the sugar conformation for this distinct structural motif.

Abstract Erucic (22:1, cisΔ13) and gondoic acids (20:1, cisΔ11) are building blocks obtained from renewable sources for the oleochemical industry. Different biocatalytic strategies for the enrichment of these compounds with high recovery yields were developed in our group. Geotrichum candidum lipases (GCL) strongly discriminate against fatty acids longer than 18 carbon atoms. Thus, GCL‐I and ‐II were investigated using hydrolysis or ethanolysis reactions with Crambe and Camelina oils. Hydrolysis was also studied using fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) derived from the corresponding oil. Both isoforms were highly selective; however, interesting differences were observed. Although it has been reported that GCL‐I displays a higher preference toward 18 cisΔ9, which is present in the studied oils at high levels, GCL‐II showed higher enrichment values during hydrolysis independent of the substrate used. Hence, enrichments of 87% (Crambe oil) and 82% (Crambe FAEE) for erucic acid and 50% (Camelina oil) and 45% (Camelina FAEE) for gondoic acid, with recovery values between 89% and 99%, were achieved. On the contrary, the best enzyme for ethanolysis was GCL‐I (82% and 41% for erucic and gondoic acid, respectively). In this case, although GCL‐II also displayed good enrichment and recovery levels (77% and 28%, respectively), they were lower compared to the former reactions. In both ethanolysis reactions, the FAEE fraction contained between 92% and 97% of 18 unsaturated fatty acids.

Abstract The efficient multifunctionalization by one‐pot or cascade catalytic systems has developed as an important research field, but is often challenging due to incompatibilities or cross‐reactivities of the catalysts leading to side product formation. Herein we report the stereoselective preparation of cis‐ and trans‐4‐aminocyclohexanol from the potentially bio‐based precursor 1,4‐cyclohexanedione. We identified regio‐ and stereoselective enzymes catalyzing reduction and transamination of the diketone, which can be performed in a one‐pot sequential or cascade mode. For this, we identified regioselective keto reductases for the selective mono reduction of the diketone to give 4‐hydroxycyclohexanone. The system is modular and by choosing stereocomplementary amine transaminases, both cis‐ and trans‐4‐aminocyclohexanol were synthesized with good to excellent diastereomeric ratios. Furthermore, we identified an amine transaminase that produces cis‐1,4‐cyclohexanediamine with diastereomeric ratios >98 : 2. These examples highlight that the high selectivity of enzymes enable short and stereoselective cascade multifunctionalizations to generate high‐value building blocks from renewable starting materials. Introduction

Purpose: The cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor p27Kip1 may be involved in regulating re-entry of residual hepatocytes into the cell cycle upon loss of liver tissue by partial hepatectomy (PH). As yet, changes in Kip1 expression during the initial period following PH are not well-characterized. We investigated immediate changes in Kip1 mRNA and protein levels as well as changes in Kip1 phosphorylation in liver tissue within the relevant time window between surgery and the onset of DNA synthesis at 10–12 h. Methods: We used real-time PCR, quantitative Western blotting, and immune histochemistry on tissue samples of adult rats obtained during or between 2 and 10 h after surgical removal of two thirds of the liver to analyze Kip1 mRNA or protein levels, respectively, or to quantify nuclear expression of Kip1. Results: Kip1 mRNA was down-regulated within 4 h after PH by 60% and remained unchanged thereafter up to 10 h. With a lag phase of 2–3 h, Kip1-protein was down-regulated to a level of 40% of the control. The level of Thr187-phosphorylated Kip1 started to increase at 4 h and reached a maximum level at 8–10 h after PH. Kip1 immunoreactivity was observed in 30% of the hepatocytes before PH. Within 6–8 h after PH, more than half of the hepatocytes lost nuclear Kip1 signals. Kip1-specific micro-RNAs (miRNA221, miRNA222) were not changed upon PH. Conclusions: A portion of hepatocytes in adult rats constitutively express Kip1 and down-regulate Kip1 immediately upon PH. This response involves transcriptional processes (loss of Kip1 mRNA) as well as accelerated degradation of existing protein (increase in pThr187-phosphorylation mediating polyubiquitinylation and proteasomal degradation of Kip1). Kip1 down-regulation occurs precisely within the intervall between surgery and onset of DNA synthesis which supports the hypothesis that it mediates activation of G0/0S-phase Cdk/cyclin-complexes and re-entry of hepatocytes into the cell cycle.

Polykristallines Gold wurde bereits seit dem Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts elektrochemisch charakterisiert und seit Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts regelmäßig als Arbeitselektrode in der elektrochemischen Analytik genutzt. Fälschlicherweise und trotz erster gegenteiliger Indizien, dominierte die Annahme, dass mechanisches Polieren die einzelnen Einkristallflächen des polykristallinen Materials freilegen würde, und dass deren statistisch gewichtetes elektrochemisches Verhalten reproduzierbar abgebildet werden könne. Mit dem Aufkommen neuer und verbesserter Verfahren zur Erzeugung hochwertiger Einkristallflächen parallel zur Entwicklung und Verbreitung leistungsstarker Techniken zur Oberflächenanalyse, konzentrierte sich die Goldforschung ab der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts auf die Charakterisierung der Einkristallflächen, ohne jedoch die neugewonnenen Erkenntnisse für die Interpretation des polykristallinen Materials zu nutzen. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war daher die Kombination elektrochemischer Methoden (lineare und zyklische Voltammetrie) mit modernen Oberflächenanalysetechniken (Röntgendiffraktion, elektrochemische Unterpotentialabscheidung von Blei-Ionen) und bildgebenden Verfahren (AFM, STM, REM) zur Charakterisierung verschieden vorbehandelter polykristalliner Goldelektroden. Zudem sollte das elektrochemische Verhalten dieser Elektroden basierend auf dem bisherigen Wissen über das Verhalten der Einkristallflächen interpretiert werden. Der Großteil der erzielten Ergebnisse wurden in den drei Publikationen veröffentlicht, die den Hauptteil dieser Dissertation bilden. Zunächst konnte eine temporäre Aktivierung mittels mechanischer oder elektrochemischer Bearbeitung sowie eine Inaktivierung durch chemisches Ätzen in sauerstoffgesättigter Kaliumcyanidlösung, bezüglich der Sauerstoffreduktion als Referenzreaktion nachgewiesen werden, wobei Aktivierung und Inaktivierung relativ sind und im Zusammenhang mit der Anzahl sogenannter aktiver Zentren auf der Elektrodenoberfläche stehen (Publikation 1). Darüber hinaus erwiesen sich kontinuierliche Oxidations- und Reduktionszyklen an polierten polykristallinen Goldelektroden in schwefelsaurer Lösung als eine neue, Zusatzstoff freie Methode für die Goldnanopartikelsynthese, da diese wohldefinierte und immobilisierte Goldkristallite auf den Elektrodenoberflächen erzeugt (Publikation 2). Die sequenzielle Kombination aus Argon-Ionenstrahlätzen und thermischem Ausheizen hat sich hingegen als effiziente Methode zur Erzeugung sauberer und glatter Elektrodenoberflächen mit hoher atomarer Ordnung erwiesen (Publikation 3). Zugleich konnte gezeigt werden, dass polykristallines Gold ein eigenständiges Material ist, dessen Eigenschaften und Verhaltensweisen nicht ausschließlich auf das statistisch gewichtete elektrochemische Verhalten der einzelnen Einkristallflächen zurückzuführen sind, sondern auch von anderen energetischen Aspekten, wie beispielsweise der Koordination der Oberflächenatome im Kristallgitter, bedingt werden (Publikation 2 und 3).

In 2010, the identification of 17 novel (R)-ATAs represented a breakthrough for the biocatalytic asymmetric synthesis of chiral amines, because only one (R)-ATA was described before. These novel ATAs were identified in a bioinformatic approach by studying the substrate acceptance of BCATs and DATAs to deduce the unknown substrate coordination of (R)-ATAs. Article I describes an alternative approach for the identification of (R)-ATA activity by reengineering the substrate- recognition site of α-AATs. While the engineering of the eBCAT led to the formation of an initial (R)-amine acceptance only, the (R)-ATA activity was successfully introduced in the DATA scaffold. These results demonstrate the transformation of an α-AAT in a moderately active (R)-ATA for the first time and highlight the evolutionary relationship between α-AATs and ATAs. Despite the availability of different ATAs nowadays, their substrate spectrum is limited due to the natural composition of their active sites. Several protein-engineering studies showed the widening of the substrate spectrum and the acceptance of bulky substrates by screening large mutant libraries to identify beneficial variants. In Article II, we developed an in silico engineering approach for amine transaminases to improve the conversion of bulky substrates and to reduce the number of variants to be tested in the laboratory. The resulting double-mutants of the (S)-ATA from C. violaceum displayed a >200-fold improved activity towards the bulky benchmark substrate. These variants expand the available biocatalytic toolbox for the synthesis of bulky amines, and the developed framework paves the way for rational protein-engineering protocols. By studying unconventional transaminase substrates, we explored the potential of the available in- house transaminase toolbox in Articles III, IV, V, and VI. In Article III, we showed the transamination of a β-keto ester, leading to the synthesis of β-phenylalanine. The described cascade in Article IV enables the synthesis of amino carbohydrates. In addition, Article V describes an enzymatic cascade for the synthesis of amino fatty acids, which was extended in Article VI to obtain fatty amines. The findings of this thesis clearly contribute to the understanding of the substrate scope and specificity of amine transaminases and expand the application of this versatile biocatalyst beyond classical ketone substrates.

Given the central metabolic role of the liver, hepatic metabolites and transcripts reflect the organismal physiological state. Biochemical-clinical plasma biomarkers, hepatic metabolites, transcripts, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotypes of some 300 pigs were integrated by weighted correlation networks and genome-wide association analyses. Network-based approaches of transcriptomic and metabolomics data revealed linked of transcripts and metabolites of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). This finding was evidenced by using a NADP/NADPH assay and HDAC4 and G6PD transcript quantification with the latter coding for first limiting enzyme of this pathway and by RNAi knockdown experiments of HDAC4. Other transcripts including ARG2 and SLC22A7 showed link to amino acids and biomarkers. The amino acid metabolites were linked with transcripts of immune or acute phase response signaling, whereas the carbohydrate metabolites were highly enrich in cholesterol biosynthesis transcripts. Genome-wide association analyses revealed 180 metabolic quantitative trait loci (mQTL) (p < 10-4). Trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline (p = 6 × 10-9), being strongly correlated with plasma creatinine (CREA), showed strongest association with SNPs on chromosome 6 that had pleiotropic effects on PRODH2 expression as revealed by multivariate analysis. Consideration of shared marker association with biomarkers, metabolites, and transcripts revealed 144 SNPs associated with 44 metabolites and 69 transcripts that are correlated with each other, representing 176 mQTL and expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL). This is the first work to report genetic variants associated with liver metabolite and transcript levels as well as blood biochemical-clinical parameters in a healthy porcine model. The identified associations provide links between variation at the genome, transcriptome, and metabolome level molecules with clinically relevant phenotypes. This approach has the potential to detect novel biomarkers displaying individual variation and promoting predictive biology in medicine and animal breeding.

Im Fokus dieser Arbeit lagen die Synthesen verschiedener Nukleosidderivate zur Aufklärung der Struktur und Funktion von RNA-Molekülen. Es wurden erfolgreich zwei Adenosinderivate synthetisiert und die für die post-synthetische Markierung benötigte Aminofunktion entweder mit Hilfe der Sonogashira-Kupplung an der Position C2 oder der Heck-Reaktion an der Position C8 eingebaut. Um auch Zugang zu modifizierten Cytidinen zu erhalten, wurde eine Synthesestrategie für ein aktiviertes Uridinderivat entworfen, um dieses nach der chemischen Synthese mittels Phosphoramiditverfahren, während der Reinigung, in das dazugehörige Cytidinderivat umzuwandeln. Hierzu wurden die funktionellen Gruppen erfolgreich für die chemische Oligonukleotidsynthese geschützt, die Modifikation an der Position C5 mit Hilfe der Sonogashira-Kupplung eingebaut und die Position C4 mit Hilfe von TIPS-Cl (2,4,6-Triisopropylbenzolsulfonylchlorid) aktiviert. In Vorversuchen konnte die erfolgreiche Umwandlung in das Cytidinderivat experimentell bestätigt werden. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde der Einfluss ausgewählter basenmodifizierter Nukleoside auf den Charakter einer doppelsträngigen RNA untersucht. Dazu wurden die Schmelzkurven und Schmelzpunkte modifizierter und unmodifizierter Oligonukleotide gemessen und ausgewertet. Die erhaltenen Daten lassen darauf schließen, dass der Einbau von basenmodifizierten Nukleosiden zur Senkung des Schmelzpunktes führt, jedoch nicht zur Veränderung des doppelsträngigen Charakters. Eine anschließende Markierung eines modifizierten Oligonukleotids mit dem Farbstoff ATTO 680 scheint nur einen marginalen Einfluss auf den Schmelzpunkt, im Vergleich zu den Schmelzpunkten der modifizierten Oligonukleotide, zu haben. Für die Untersuchung der Funktion und Struktur von größeren RNA-Molekülen, wie zum Beispiel ROSE-Elementen, wurde eine Strategie zu deren Herstellung mit Hilfe der T4 RNA Ligase I entwickelt und ex-perimentell bestätigt. Dazu wurde das ROSE-Element in drei Segmente geteilt, diese chemisch synthetisiert, gereinigt und mit Hilfe der T4 RNA Ligase I zum vollständigen Element ligiert. Dabei konnte das ROSE-Element erfolgreich vom 5´-Terminus aufgebaut werden. Es steht nun eine Methode zur Verfügung, um auch modifizierte Oligonukleotide zu einem ROSE-Element zu ligieren und dieses auf seine Funktion und Struktur hin zu untersuchen. Eine RNA 4-way-junction wurde durch Hybridisierung generiert und für strukturelle Untersuchungen verfügbar gemacht.

Bei der Arzneimittelentwicklung liegt der Fokus nicht nur auf der Wirksamkeit und Sicherheit einer pharmakologisch aktiven Substanz, sondern auch auf einer möglichst einfachen, idealerweise oralen Applikation. Um die benötigten Wirkstoffkonzentrationen im Zielorgan zu erreichen, wird die einzunehmende Dosis eines Medikaments in Abhängigkeit der präsystemischen Elimination ermittelt. Inzwischen ist bekannt, dass nicht ausschließlich der hepatische, sondern auch der intestinale Stoffwechsel die orale Bioverfügbarkeit eines Medikaments wesentlich beeinflussen kann. Arzneistoffe, die während der Darmpassage einer starken Metabolisierung unterliegen, sind zudem prädestiniert für unerwünschte Interaktionen mit anderen Substanzen, welche die entsprechenden Stoffwechselenzyme hemmen oder induzieren. Für die Abschätzung pharmakokinetischer Parameter eines neuen Wirkstoffs sind daher Kenntnisse zur Expression sowie Funktion klinisch relevanter intestinaler Stoffwechselenzyme von Bedeutung. Bisher publizierte Daten basieren größtenteils auf der Genexpression, obwohl aufgrund posttranskriptionaler Prozesse nicht zwingend Aussagen zur resultierenden Proteinmenge getroffen werden können. Die verfügbaren Daten zum intestinalen Proteingehalt wurden mittels immunologischer Methoden erhoben, die erhebliche Limitationen in Bezug auf Spezifität, Reproduzierbarkeit und Robustheit aufweisen. Diese Aspekte finden bei den inzwischen etablierten LC-MS/MS-basierten Targeted-Proteomics-Methoden Berücksichtigung. Dazu werden die Proteine einer Messprobe enzymatisch gespalten, um entstehende proteospezifische Peptide zur Quantifizierung der Proteine von Interesse zu nutzen. Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand in der Entwicklung und Validierung einer entsprechenden Methode zur gleichzeitigen Bestimmung von CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT2B7 sowie UGT2B15 in biologischen Matrices, welche die aktuell gültigen Leitlinien in Bezug auf Selektivität, Linearität, Richtigkeit, Präzision und Stabilität erfüllt. Bereits bei der ersten Anwendung der Methode zur Quantifizierung der Enzyme in kommerziell erhältlichen und selbst isolierten Mikrosomen zeigte sich, welchen erheblichen Einfluss die Probenvorbereitung auf die ermittelten Proteingehalte hat. Diese Erkenntnis wurde im Rahmen eines internationalen Projektes bestätigt, bei dem humane Leberproben desselben Ursprungs in diversen Laboren mit den dort etablierten Methoden prozessiert worden sind. Bezogen auf die eingesetzte Gewebemenge ergaben sich bei der Messung der Mikrosomen 6 - 30-fach geringere Enzymgehalte als bei der Analyse des nicht-fraktionierten Gewebes, da die subzelluläre Aufspaltung einer Probe mit erheblichen Proteinverlusten einhergeht. Folglich wurden alle weiteren Untersuchungen zur absoluten Enzymquantifizierung unter Verwendung von filterbasierten Zentrifugaleinheiten (filter aided sample preparation; FASP) mit Gesamtgewebelysatproben durchgeführt. Sowohl die optimierte Probenaufarbeitung als auch die validierte Targeted-Proteomics-Methode fanden bei der Untersuchung der Darmsegmente von 9 Spendern Anwendung, wobei jeweils Gewebe aus dem Duodenum, oberen und unteren Jejunum, Ileum sowie Colon zur Verfügung stand. Von den 13 untersuchten Enzymen wurden in allen Dünndarmabschnitten nur CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, UGT1A1, UGT1A3 und UGT2B7 nachgewiesen, deren Gehalt im Jejunum am höchsten war. Im Colon wurde auf Proteinebene keines der Metabolisierungsenzyme detektiert. Die entsprechenden Genexpressionsdaten dieser 8 Enzyme korrelieren signifikant mit den ermittelten Proteinwerten. Korrespondierend zur fehlenden Nachweisbarkeit der übrigen 5 Enzyme auf Proteinebene waren die Gene CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2E1 sowie UGT2B15 nur sehr geringfügig und CYP1A2 gar nicht exprimiert. Zur Charakterisierung der metabolischen Aktivität der intestinalen Enzyme wurde eine weitere LC-MS/MS-basierte Methode entwickelt und validiert. Als Modellsubstrate fungierten Diclofenac (CYP2C9), Omeprazol (CYP2C19), Dextromethorphan (CYP2D6), Midazolam (CYP3A), Ezetimib (UGT1A) und Naloxon (UGT2B7). Die begrenzte Verfügbarkeit des intestinalen Gewebes sowie dessen sehr geringer mikrosomaler Proteingehalt stellten besondere Anforderungen an die Sensitivität der Methode. Ihre Eignung zur Charakterisierung der intestinalen Metabolisierungsaktivität wurde bei der Anwendung auf ein jejunales Mikrosomen-Gemisch gezeigt. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit generierten Daten zur Expression klinisch bedeutsamer Metabolisierungsenzyme entlang des humanen Darms tragen zu einem besseren Verständnis des intestinalen First-Pass-Metabolismus bei. Diese Kenntnisse können sowohl bei der Entwicklung neuer Arzneistoffe als auch für die Erstellung von Physiologie-basierten pharmakokinetischen Modellen (PBPK-Modellen) nützlich sein, um die orale Bioverfügbarkeit sowie das Interaktionspotential pharmakologisch aktiver Substanzen abzuschätzen.

Molybdenum dependent enzymes are involved in essential metabolic transformations in bacteria, plants, and human beings. The extreme instability of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) prevents its use as an effective treatment for patients with a Moco deficiency. Therefore, the design, develop and execute the artificial molybdenum cofactor models are essential. In the present thesis, the asymmetric molybdopterin (mpt) model precursors with oxygen functionality and various electronic structures and their Moco model complexes mimicking the natural cofactor have been synthesized and comprehensively investigated through multi-nuclear NMR, MS, IR, resonance Raman, X-ray crystallography, UV-Vis, and electrochemical methods. Notably, the asymmetrically substituted dithiolenes in this thesis are confirmed through a significant push-pull effect, which is tuning its electronic structure. The redox behavior of Moco model complexes was investigated by temperature-dependent cyclic voltammetry. Electronic and vibrational spectral studies were investigated in detail to understand substituents effect on the electronic structure of model complexes and to elucidate roles of mpt in catalysis. Since the model complexes can be considered as structural models for the Moco dependent oxidoreductases, catalytic oxygen atom transfer (OAT) reactions in DMSO/PPh3 were investigated. The main focus of the present thesis was achieved through the development of various synthetic routes that address phosphonate bearing dithiolene ligands, inspiring the natural mpt. Simultaneously the Minisci protocol was applied for the synthesis of new pterin ketophosphonates, taking into consideration the essential aspects of the natural molybdopterin, including the phosphate anchor group. Even though some aspects of this protocol require further optimizations, but the mentioned synthetic route has exceptional potential and flexibility.

In acinar cells, cellular organelles like zymogene granule, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosome functions in coordinate way in order to synthesize and secrets large amounts of digestive enzyme. Dysfunction of this organelle, results into enzyme activation within acinar cell; ultimately, acute pancreatitis. While previous studies reported that mitochondrial function is disrupt but mechanism of clearance of these mitochondria remains unknown during pancreatitis. Here we reported that PINK1 and Parkin mediated pathway is activated during pancreatitis and clears dysfunctional mitochondria in-vivo. PINK1 or Parkin deficient acinar cell had energy crisis, decreased ATP production and altered acinar cell fate in-vitro. Inhibiting clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria aggravates experimental pancreatitis severity and delays regeneration/recovery of exocrine tissue after disease via PARIS-PGC-1α pathway. While an attempt to explore therapeutic target of PARIS-PGC-1α pathway by treatment of SRT1720 rescued experimental pancreatitis. Together, PINK1 and Parkin, restricts exocrine pancreatic damage in pancreatitis and accelerates tissue recovery after disease.

Oils and fats from natural origin are sustainable sources for a broad range of economically relevant products in food, feed, fuel, oleochemical, and cosmetic industries. Thereby, a huge variety of lipids or lipid-derived products exist which distinguish themselves by their unique physical properties making them suitable for their individual applications. To obtain such functional lipids in an environmentally friendly manner, enzymes can be employed. In that context, lipases have been proven to be valuable biocatalysts in lipid modification, which are broadly applied in industry. Even though they have been implemented successfully in the dairy, baking, and detergent industries, there is an increasing demand for the expansion of their utilization. New technologies like protein engineering and the implementation of process development are employed in solving this task. Within the enzymes in lipid modification, lipases are the most applied catalysts and in this thesis their utilization was expanded successfully to the implementation of novel separation processes and the production of improved drug delivery matrices.

The synthesis of pterin-dithiolene ligands was achieved by employing the radical nucleophilic substitution, i.e. the so-called “Minisci- Reaction”1. This protocol was used for the first time by Professor W. Pfleiderer on pterin substrates2 and proved a powerful method for the preparation of 6 acyl-pterins in course of this work. Subsequent construction of the dithiolene ring facilitates the synthesis of pterin-dithiolene ligands with completely unprotected pterin moieti. The molybdenum cofactor is probably one of the most relevant discoveries in the recent history of pterin chemistry and biochemistry. Many efforts have been made for the preparation of compounds able to mimic the features of the Moco ligand system called "Molybdopterin". In fact, the study of MPT models enables a deeper understanding of the “mechanism of function” of this cofactor and most importantly, lays the foundation for a potential treatment for the Moco related diseases MoCOD and iSOD.

Die akute Pankreatitis ist durch eine vorzeitige intraazinäre Proteasen-Aktivierung gekennzeichnet, wobei diese im Verlauf der Erkrankung durch eine zunehmende Immunantwort mit in das Pankreas infiltrierenden Immunzellen ergänzt wird. Eine besondere Bedeutung hat die intrazelluläre Aktivierung der Serinprotease Trypsinogen, die in Abhängigkeit der lysosomalen Hydrolase Cathepsin B (CTSB) verläuft. Wir konnten zeigen, dass verschiedene lysosomale Proteine (Cathepsin D (CTSD), Cathepsin C (CTSC)) nach pathologischem Stimulus in das sekretorische Kompartiment (Zymogengranula) umverteilt werden. Cathepsin D ist in der Lage, das Schlüsselenzym Cathepsin B zu aktivieren, indem es das Pro-Enzym zu aktivem Enzym spaltet. Der Ort dieser proteolytischen Aktivierung sind die sekretorischen Vesikel. Eine pharmakologisch induzierte Permeabilisierung der Lysosomen mit nachfolgendem Ausbleiben der Umverteilung der Enzyme in das sekretorische Kompartiment zeigte, dass die vorzeitige Zymogen-Aktivierung in der Frühphase der Pankreatitis erhalten geblieben ist und unabhängig vom Lysosom verläuft. Eine CTSB-Abhängigkeit bleibt jedoch bestehen. Ein Fehlen von CTSD in den Azinuszellen führt zu einem nur transient milderen Verlauf der akuten Pankreatitis, wie anhand von CTSDf/f/p48Cre/+ Mäusen demonstiert werden konnte, die einen Pankreas-spezifischen CTSD Knockout besitzen. Ein anhaltend milderer Verlauf der Pankreatitis fand sich in CTSD-/- Mäusen, der auf eine verminderte Sekretion pro-inflammatorischer Zytokine in Immunzellen zurückzuführen ist. Auch bei Defizienz von CTSC war der Schweregrad der akuten Pankreatitis milder, wie in CTSC-/- Mäusen experimentell demonstiert werden konnte. Ursächlich hierfür ist vor allem ein reduziertes Einwandern neutrophiler Granulozyten in das Pankreas und in die extrapankreatischen Organe (Lunge), die auf eine geringere Aktivität der Serinprotease Neutrophilen Elastase und verminderte Spaltung des Zell-Kontakt Moleküls E-Cadherin beruhen. Umgekehrt beeinflusste das Fehlen von CTSC in den Azinuszellen nicht die vorzeitige Proteasen-Aktivierung. Unsere Arbeit unterstreicht die Bedeutung lysosomaler Enzyme in der akuten Pankreatitis und zeigt, dass diese Enzyme maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die Funktion von Immunzellen haben, die den Verlauf der Erkrankung wesentlich mitbestimmen. Unsere Arbeit zeigt außerdem, dass der primäre Ort der intrazellulären und vorzeitigen Proteasen-Aktivierung alleinig im sekretorischen Kompartiment stattfindet und nicht von einer Fusion mit dem lysosomalen Kompartiment abhängig ist.

β-chirale Amine, wie zum Beispiel Pregabalin und Baclofen, sind Verbindungen von großem Interesse insbesondere für die pharmazeutische Industrie. Biokatalytische Herstellungsverfahren, vor allem Aminierungsreaktionen, sind bisher nur geringfügig untersucht worden und werden nach aktuellem Wissenstand bis auf die Synthese von Niraparib noch nicht in großtechnischem Maßstab eingesetzt. Wünschenswert ist die Etablierung einer Synthese, welche (S)-Pregabalin bzw. (R)-Baclofen in hohen Ausbeuten liefert, da diese beiden Enantiomere jeweils die höhere biologische Wirksamkeit aufweisen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Synthese von Pregabalin und Baclofen als Modellverbindungen für β-chirale Amine mit Hilfe einer selektiven Amintransaminase oder Amindehydrogenase. Zunächst wurde erfolgreich mit Hilfe der Gaschromatographie bzw. HPLC jeweils eine chirale Analytik für die beiden Reaktionsprodukte sowie die Baclofen-Derivate etabliert, die stabil reproduzierbar und auch zur Quantifizierung geeignet war. Auch für 3-(4-Chlorphenyl)-4-oxo-buttersäure-t-butylester konnte eine GC-Methode entwickelt werden, die Aufschluss über die Konzentration und den Enantiomerenüberschuss gab. Die vier zur Verfügung gestellten Amindehydrogenasen konnten erfolgreich exprimiert und mittels IMAC-Methode gereinigt werden. Trotz geringer Aktivitäten in einem photometrischen NADH-Assay konnte jedoch keine Produktbildung nachgewiesen werden. Eine Kollektion von ca. 150 Amintransaminasen wurde bezüglich der Desaminierung von Pregabalin und Baclofen mittels Dünnschichtchromatographie untersucht. In Richtung der Aminierung wurde ein photometrischer Acetophenon-Assay verwendet. Dabei wurden für Pregabalin sechs und für Baclofen 17 potenzielle Kandidaten ermittelt. Besonders vielversprechend war die Variante 3FCR 59W 87L 231A 382M 429A (3FCR_5M), welche 3-(4-Chlorphenyl)-4-oxo-buttersäure-t-butylester als Substrat akzeptierte. Nach der Ermittlung eines geeigneten Aminodonors und Optimierung der Reaktionsbedingungen konnten Umsätze bis zu 90% bei 99%ee (R) mit IMAC-gereinigter 3FCR_5M erzielt werden. Um Kosten für ein späteres großtechnisches Verfahren einzusparen, sollte die Reaktion ebenfalls für den Einsatz von Zellextrakt optimiert werden. Dabei wurde beobachtet, dass geringere Enantiomerenüberschüsse erzielt wurden als mit dem gereinigten Enzym und der Substratverbrauch höher als die Produktbildung war. Als mögliche Ursachen wurden der Umsatz des Substrats durch ein E. coli eigenes Enzym, beispielsweise eine Aldehydreduktase oder Aldehyddehydrogenase, sowie eine Beeinflussung der Enantioselektivität durch die veränderte chemische Umgebung oder den selektiven Entzug des gewünschten Substrat-Enantiomers durch eine selektive Nebenreaktion hypothetisiert. Dieses Phänomen konnte durch eine vorgeschaltete Reinigung mittels fraktionierender Ammoniumsulfat-Fällung jedoch erfolgreich umgangen werden. Mit dieser Methode konnten vergleichbar hohe Umsätze und Enantiomerenüberschüsse wie mit dem IMAC-gereinigten Enzym erreicht werden. Bei ersten Vorversuchen zum Up-Scaling der Reaktion wurde festgestellt, dass eine höhere Substratkonzentration nicht einen proportional höheren Umsatz zur Folge hatte, jedoch konnte der Umsatz durch eine versetzte Zugabe der Enzymlösung gesteigert werden, sodass ein Prozess mit diesem Biokatalysator in seiner aktuellen Form eine kontinuierliche Zugabe erfordern würde. Praktikabel wäre einer Verminderung der Substrat-Inhibierung und Erhöhung der Enzymstabilität durch weiteres Protein-Engineering. Auch zur Produktion von 3FCR_5M im größeren Maßstab wurden Experimente vorgenommen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine vielversprechende Expression im Bioreaktor bei einer kontinuierlichen Temperatur von 30°C und einer Expressionsdauer von sieben Stunden. Nach einigen Optimierungsschritten konnte im Bioreaktor die zwanzigfache volumetrische Aktivität im Vergleich zur Expression im Schüttelkolben erzeugt werden. Zusammenfassend ist zu sagen, dass in der vorliegenden Arbeit, trotz weiterem Optimierungsbedarf, eine sehr gute Grundlage für die Transaminase-vermittelte Synthese von (R)-Baclofen geschaffen wurde. In zukünftigen Arbeiten sollte die Optimierung der Reaktion in großem Maßstab im Fokus stehen.

The present work is a cumulative dissertation that covers the research work of the author at the Department of Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Chelyabinsk State University. It contains a short description of the study and a set of attached publications in peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings. The phase and chemical equilibria in binary systems Me – Si (where Me is the 4th-period transition metal) as well as Mo – Si, Mn – Ge and Fe – Ge at low temperatures were considered. The solid solubility of silicon in vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt and copper and that of germanium in manganese and iron was estimated. The phase equilibria in Me – Si – O, Mo – Si – O, Mn – Ge – O and Fe – Ge – O ternary systems at standard conditions were considered from a thermodynamic viewpoint. The atmospheric corrosion of transition metals silicides and manganese and iron germanides was discussed. The chemical and electrochemical equilibria in Me – Si – H2O, Mo – Si – H2O, Mn – Ge – H2O and Fe – Ge – H2O systems were considered from a thermodynamic viewpoint. Pourbaix diagrams for some 4th-period transition metals and molybdenum, as well as for silicon, were revised. The potential – pH diagrams for Me – Si – H2O, Mo – Si – H2O, Mn – Ge – H2O and Fe – Ge – H2O systems were plotted in the first time. The corrosion-electrochemical behaviour of transition metals silicides and manganese and iron germanides in aqueous media was discussed. The potential – pH diagrams for some siliceous brasses and bronzes (which are multicomponent alloys containing both transition metals and silicon) were plotted, and the corrosion of these alloys in aqueous media was discussed. Method of estimation of corrosion-electrochemical behaviour of multicomponent alloys, which takes into account both thermodynamic and kinetic data and is based on mutual construction of equilibrium and polarisation potential – pH diagrams, was described. Its usage was illustrated in the example of the structural steel 20KT.

In an aerobic environment the occurrence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a common phenomenon. The diverse roles of ROS in cellular function and in diseases make them a target of interest in many research areas. Substances capable of directly or indirectly reducing the (harmful) effects of ROS are referred to as “antioxidants”. However, the term is applied miscellaneously in the chemical and the biological context to describe different attributes of a substance. In this work the potential of an electrochemical assay to detect different ROS in-vitro was explored. The method was optimized to investigate the radical scavenging activities (antioxidant potential) of trolox and different plant compounds (ascorbic acid, caffeic acid, epigallocatechin gallate, ferulic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, rutin, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract) in-vitro. The obtained data was compared to established antioxidant in-vitro assays. Further, the impact of the plant substances on cellular parameters was evaluated with the electrochemical assay and established cell assays. The optimization of the electrochemical assay allowed the reproducible detection of ROS. The sensor electrode proved differently sensitive towards individual ROS species. The highest sensitivity was recorded for hydroxyl radicals while superoxide and hydrogen peroxide had little impact on the sensor. Extracellular ROS concentrations could be detected from cell lines releasing elevated ROS into the extracellular space. The antioxidant activity of the investigated plant substances could be demonstrated with all in-vitro assays applied. However, the absolute as well as the relative activity of the individual substances varied depending on the experimental parameters of the assays (pH, radical species, phase, detection method). The plant compounds modified redox related intracellular parameters in different cell lines. However, a direct correlation between intracellular and extracellular effects of the plant compounds could not be established. The work demonstrates the feasibility to use the electrochemical assay to sense ROS as well as to evaluate the radical scavenging activity of molecules. The in-vitro antioxidant activities demonstrated for the individual plant substances are not reliable to predict the cellular effects of the molecules.

G-Quadruplexe (G4) sind alternative Sekundärstrukturen, die von Guanosin-reichen DNA- oder RNA-Sequenzen ausgebildet werden können. In den letzten Jahren rückten diese tetrameren Konstrukte aufgrund ihres erst kürzlichen Nachweises in lebenden Humanzellen und ihrem Vorkommen in bestimmten funktionellen Genombereichen wie den Promotorregionen von Protoonkogenen oder den Telomeren zunehmend in den Fokus der Nukleinsäureforschung. Insbesondere ihre starke Korrelation mit Krebs macht Quadruplexstrukturen als Zielmotiv für die Entwicklung antikanzerogener Wirkstoffe höchst interessant. Um jedoch niedermolekulare Moleküle für therapeutische Zwecke nutzen zu können, muss zunächst auf molekularer Ebene ein grundlegendes Verständnis für die Ligand-Quadruplex-Interaktion geschaffen und anhand dieser Informationen Optimierungsmöglichkeiten für G4-bindende Liganden ergründet werden. Ziel dieser Dissertation war die ausführliche Analyse der Bindung biologisch aktiver, Phenyl-substituierter Indolochinoline an Quadruplexstrukturen mittels diverser spektroskopischer und kalorimetrischer Methoden. Um simultan den Einfluss verschiedener Ligandstrukturelemente auf die G4-Anbindung für ein zukünftiges, rationales Wirkstoffdesign zu erforschen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zunächst unterschiedlich modifizierte Indolochinolinderivate synthetisch hergestellt. In ersten spektroskopischen Experimenten sollten diese Moleküle anschließend nicht nur auf ihre generelle Interaktion mit verschiedenen G4-Topologien hin untersucht, sondern auch die Selektivität, die Bindungsaffinität und der Interaktionsmodus der Liganden ermittelt werden. Besonders die Indolochinoline mit basischen Seitenketten und einer N5-Methylierung zeigten eine hohe Affinität und Präferenz gegenüber parallelen Quadruplexstrukturen. Um detailliertere Informationen über diese Ligand-DNA-Wechselwirkung zu erhalten, erfolgten umfassende thermodynamische Bindungsstudien mittels isothermaler Titrationskalorimetrie. Anhand dieser Daten erfolgte eine Separation der Freien Bindungsenthalpie, die in dieser Form erstmalig für ein G4-bindendes Molekül beschrieben wurde. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Anbindung der Phenyl-substituierten Indolochinoline nicht nur durch hydrophobe Effekte, sondern vor allem durch spezifische molekulare Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Ligand und der Quadruplex vorangetrieben wird.

Humanity is constantly confronted with the emergence and reemergence of infectious diseases. Many of them produce large or devastating epidemics, like AIDS (HIV) and Ebola. Others have been long neglected, yet pose immediate threats to global public health as evidences the abrupt emergence of Zika virus in South America and its association with microcephaly in babies. The examples illustrate, that many of these diseases are provoked by RNA viruses. One of the first steps in understanding and eliminating those threats is the development of sensitive and rapid diagnostic methods. A general and relatively rapid method is the direct detection and examination of the agent’s genome. However, the nature of (re)emerging RNA viruses poses a series of very specific problems for the design of such methods. Therefore, a systematic approach was proposed for the design of DNA-hybridization-base methods to detect and characterize RNA viruses that will have both a high sensitivity and a specificity sufficiently broad to detect, per reaction, down to a single copy of any of the possible variants of the viral genome. Following this approach a series of assays were designed, developed or adapted and put into use for detection and characterization of important RNA viruses. One of those viruses is West Nile virus (WNV), which after its explosive introduction into USA become the most widespread flavivirus throughout the world and, consequently, many countries began an intensive monitoring. While existing assay detected predominantly the Lineage 1, in Europa Lineage 2 was expected. Two new RT-qPCR for the detection of both lineages were developed, and reportedly used by independent laboratories. Due to more than 50000 associated deaths per year, the Hepatitis E virus also received an increasing attention to elucidate novel routes of transmission. This virus (especially genotype 3) has the zoonotic potential of transmission from pigs and wild boar to humans. RT-qPCR and nested qPCR for detection and characterization of this virus as well as a methodology for subtyping were developed and the first detected case of subtype 3b in a German wild animal was documented. In addition a novel assay for flaviviruses conformed by a RT-qPCR coupled with a low density DNA microarray was developed, which enabled the identification of WNV in mosquitoes from Greece. A RT-qPCR suitable for surveillance and diagnostic of all known variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus was developed too. A causative agent of hemorrhagic infections, the Ngari virus, was detected and characterized in animal samples from Mauritania. These achievements were supported by the development of software applications for selection and visualization of primers and probes from aligned DNA sequences and for modeling of DNA hybridizations using unaligned sequences. In conclusion a general methodology for rapid development of sensitive diagnostic methods based in DNA-hybridization technics (PCR, sequencing and microarray) was stablished and successful applications are reported.

The overarching goal of this work was to develop a biosensor based on functional nucleic acids. The biosensor should be modular, such that by exchange of the recognition unit, tailored biosensors could be created, allowing detecting a variety of analytes on demand. In the context of the cooperation with a company, initially, TNFalpha was chosen as an analyte. In a previous work, it was tried to build a modular aptazyme for TNFalpha that was based on four aptamers that were developed by SELEX. Here, these aptamers were investigated more closely by different methods (SPR, QCM). In the present work, it was proven beyond doubt that this attempt was not feasible. The aptamers were not able to bind the biologically active form of TNFalpha. An even more interesting finding was that a common tool to immobilize molecules to investigate their interactions with a binding partner, namely the streptavidin-biotin interaction, can strongly influence the result of the assay and causing false-positive results. Afterwards, it was decided to continue the work with a DNAzyme and modular approach was strictly refrained. It was tried to build aptazymes for TNFa or creatinine by in vitro selection, which failed. Most likely, the crucial factors were the ligands itself and the high demand on in vitro selection to select two functionalities (aptamer and catalytic activity) in parallel. This was the reason, to develop a new and a different method with streptavidin as a model analyte. The new strategy was to combine in vitro selection and rational design. The 17E-DNAzyme was chosen as catalytically active module. In preparation of the in vitro selection work, its properties were analyzed. An oligo-based inhibitor of the 17E-DNAzyme was rationally designed and its functionality was experimentally evaluated. Then, a library was designed which contained the 17E-DNAzyme, a randomized domain, and the inhibitor and its functionality was experimentally proven. The in vitro selection for the aptamer and the catalytic function were separated in two steps where the substrate strand was introduced in the second step. The knowledge about in vitro selection procedures, which was gained in the first trials with TNFalpha and creatinine was applied and could be substantially broadened. The crucial factors for the success of this process were identified. Most important steps are the amplification steps between the rounds and the in vitro selection pressure. The template concentration in the PCR has to be very low; the selection pressure has to be high. However, in fact, the exact quantity of "low" and "high" is difficult to determine exactly, it has to be individually evaluated for every amplification step, and this makes in vitro selection a method that requires a lot of experimental skills, optimization procedures, and experience. An EMSA was established and performed to qualitatively prove the affinity of the library for streptavidin in the first step of the in vitro selection method. For the second step, the in vitro selection of the catalytic function, considerable effort was done, but the in vitro selection did not succeed. Using the Biacore, the dissociation constant of the pool, which was applied in the second step of in vitro selection, was determined to be KD = 38 nM. This is very low, and by sequencing the pool it was found that the sequence variability was too low. The sequences share a cramp-like stem-loop structure, which hold the DNAzyme in an inactive conformation. This work presents valuable results for the development of biosensors based on nucleic acids, applying in vitro selection and rational design. Aptamers for streptavidin were selected. The library, which was used for this in vitro selection was structurally constrained. This obviously, represented an exceptionally good starting point for the in vitro selection. In this work, a lot of information about the development of in vitro selection systems was gained. Important work was done on establishing a click chemistry-based immobilization strategy. This work is going to fundamentally facilitate a new in vitro selection approach based on this immobilization strategy.

In this work, the discovery, expression and characterization of new eukaryotic Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) from yeasts has been shown. A rational design of one of these enzymes led to the identification of key residues to alter the sulfoxidation activity of this group of enzymes. Additionally, in another rational design approach, the cofactor specificity of the BVMO cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus could be substantially altered to accept the much cheaper and therefore industrially more relevant cofactor NADH.

The four stranded G-quadruplexes are important secondary structures of nucleic acids formed by guanosine-rich sequences. Besides the application as scaffold for technological applications, they are involved in many cellular processes such as gene regulation, replication, or maintenance of chromosomal ends. Characteristically, a large diversity of quadruplex structures is observed, whereas the correlation between sequence and structure is still not fully understood. In this thesis, the effects of modified nucleotides on G-quadruplexes were analyzed using NMR-spectroscopy to gain insight into driving forces determining the folding process. Contrary to DNA quadruplexes, the folding landscape of RNA structures is mostly restricted to parallel topologies. Therefore, ribose moieties were introduced into DNA sequences to isolate the effect of the additional hydroxy group. In this way, sequential CHO hydrogen bonds between the 2&prime;-OH and the H8 of the 3&prime;-neighbored anti conformer were identified and subsequently detected within RNA structures. In a second part, 2&prime;-fluoro-2&prime;-deoxyribose was incorporated at positions with guanosine in unfavored syn orientation. Instead of a changed global fold, the direction of the hydrogen bond network in the modified tetrad was reversed. This first example of tetrad inversion within a unimolecular quadruplex yielded a unique (3+1)-hybrid topology with only homopolar stacking interactions. Additionally, the effect was reproduced for another sequence and high-resolution structures were determined. Unfavored interactions between the 2&prime;-fluorine and the narrow groove of the quadruplex were identified as a reason for different sugar conformations and consequent structural rearrangements.

In this thesis, rates and extend as well as the ecological implications of electron exchange reactions that involve redox-active moieties in organic matter (OM) were explored. The research builds on earlier findings that confirmed that OM may act as terminal electron acceptor (TEA) for electrons released in microbial respiration. This property was associated with quinone moieties that are ubiquitously found in OM from terrestrial and aquatic environments and that may undergo reversible reduction to the respective hydroquinone. Earlier methodological advances allowed for a rapid, direct and precise quantification of the electron accepting and donating properties of quinones in dissolved OM (DOM) by mediated electrochemical analysis. In this work, the previously established mediated electrochemical analysis was adapted and used in the characterization of redox properties of particulate natural samples that contain redox active iron and organic matter ("geochemical phases"). For the first time, direct measurements confirmed that microorganisms transferred electrons (e) from microbial respiration to the organic and inorganic electron acceptors in the particulate phase. Particulate OM in the sediments was found to provide a capacity to accept or donate e of 650 µmol e/gC. An incubation experiment resolved the spatiotemporal dynamics of organic and inorganic TEA species (i.e., nitrate, sulfate, Fe- and Mn oxyhydroxides) in sediments upon changes in oxygen availability and hence redox conditions. Oxygen is consumed when the reduced species are oxidized and, by this means, re-generate their electron-accepting capacity. The use of mediated electrochemical analysis allowed for the quantification of the redox state of the geochemical phases during their reduction and re-oxidation. The electron fluxes initiated by the oxic re generation of the TEAs nitrate, sulfate, Fe(III), Mn(IV) and quinoid moieties in OM were therefore directly monitored instead of modeled from the species’ distribution profiles in interstitial waters. The cyclic reduction and re-oxidation of redox species exposed to oxygen fluctuations was suspected to be a critical component of many aquatic ecosystems. In stratified lakes, extended sediment volumes are exposed to oxygen only upon lake overturn. Lake oxygen budgets are therefore influenced by benthic redox processes. The combined field and laboratory study showed that lake overturn seasonally introduces a finite amount of oxygen to the hypolimnion and that about 50% of the subsequent sediment oxygen consumption is exclusively associated with the re-generation of TEA species. These species previously formed in the sediment when organic matter was microbially decomposed during anaerobia. While lake overturn can completely mix epi- and hypolimnetic waters, small-scaled dynamics in temperature and oxygen availability may confine discrete parts of the water column with oscillations in physicochemical conditions. In the studied lake, a transient thermocline cyclically introduces oxygen to hypoxic hyplimnetic waters close to the pelagic redox interface. In the lake, organic TEAs may represent an important component of the total pelagic electron acceptor capacity. Due to the rapid and reversible redox reactions of DOM, reduced organic TEAs are re-generated upon dislocation to oxic parts of the water column. Results show that diurnal fluctuations of oxycline depth shape a micro-environment selecting for microbial species that are released from TEA limitations by OM in oxidized state. Pelagic microbial communities subjected to the same amount of OM in different oxidation states differed by more than 50% after one day. This work substantiates earlier findings that suggested that OM may be an important TEA species in many aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. OM reduction in microbial respiration was shown to directly affect critical system parameters as bacterial activity, oxygen budgets and aquatic biodiversity. Both the microbial reduction and subsequent abiotic oxidation of OM are sufficiently fast for relevant interaction with oxycline fluctuation on different timescales. Given that organic TEAs are cyclically regenerated, a significant share of ecosystem respiration could be linked to OM reduction. This thesis demonstrated the new and important role electron exchange reactions in OM-rich environments play and explored the mechanism of this previously neglected part of lake functioning. As of today, linking the chemistry of aquatic turnover processes with the microbiological and physical conditions at redox interfaces remains challenging. In conclusions, by providing several cases from aquatic environments, this thesis contributes to the mechanistic understanding of OM reduction in microbial respiration. The results prompt for further research regarding the competitive inhibition of other respiration pathways, including the reductive production of the potent greenhouse gas methane.

The synthesis of valuable chemicals via traditional chemical methods can be often outperformed by the use of enzymes because of their excellent chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity in aqueous solvents at ambient temperatures. On the other hand, enzymes often suffer from several limitations that hamper their industrial application. Protein engineering is commonly applied to overcome these limitations although the generation and the validation of mutants is often a laborious process that may not lead to the desired results within reasonable time frames. This thesis focuses on engineering the enantioselectivity and the substrate scope of industrially relevant enzymes, such as esterases and transaminases. Semi-rational protein engineering was employed to identify improved variants for the synthesis of valuable chemicals ensuring a reduced screening effort. Compared to previous works, 3DM’s applicability was extended to the study of correlated mutations and proved effective in the acceleration of the comprehension and in the mutation of these enzymatic scaffolds. Semi-rational approaches require an extensive amount of information such as protein structures, reaction mechanisms, previous mutational experiments reported in literature and a considerable amount of amino acid sequences from similar proteins to analyze amino acid distributions and correlated mutations. Here, we have exploited 3DM as a tool that can combine all this wealth of information: 3DM is a convenient solution to retrieve and integrate information simplifying decision making in the planning of a semi-rational mutant library since in 3DM’s multiple sequence alignments (MSA) is summarized Nature’s screening process for alternative variants. Furthermore, naturally evolving enzymes often require mutations at more than one position for the acquisition of a new property. Such mutations generate patterns that are recognized by the 3DM algorithm, which creates networks that can be investigated to design strategies that aim to improve the property of interest. Finally, these correlated mutations are connected to the mutations described in publications covered in the PubMed database, thus helping to investigate the role certain positions might play in the network. Article I shows that it is possible to improve the enantioselectivity of an esterase towards a highly symmetrical substrate while drastically reducing the screening effort. This was achieved through the creation of libraries that limit the variants to those identified in the 3DM alignment. Article II shows that networks of correlated mutations are composed of positions that may cluster around a function. These functions can be investigated because 3DM connects the positions in the network to their related publications. In this article, a mutant of the esterase PFE-I from Pseudomonas fluorescens was generated having increased enantioselectivity in the hydrolysis of important target compounds. Article III suggests that the in silico modelling software YASARA, combined with the use of the 3DM database, can further reduce the screening effort: it was possible to identify a hot-spot because both the 3DM database and YASARA docking studies, indicated its importance. This led to a further improved enantioselectivity of the enzyme variant identified in Article II. Article IV shows how MSA may be used to get structural insights into the catalytic properties of enzymes with documented activity. The study of the patterns observed in a large subfamily alignment allowed the definition of the structural determinants important for the substrate recognition in amine transaminases. Article V and VI apply the knowledge acquired for the improvement of the substrate scope in the amine transaminase from Vibrio fluvialis.

Cascade reactions are not only of interest to chemists and biotechnologists, but also to life in general, because every metabolic reaction resembles a cascade reaction. This principle of substrate/intermediate channeling was only adapted by scientists. That way especially one-pot reactions became very attractive as for this no isolation of intermediates is necessary. Furthermore, unstable or toxic intermediates are only produced in low amounts and directly transformed in situ. In this PhD thesis two previously established cascade reactions were subject of further optimization. In the first part, a cascade reaction established in a DFG-funded project (Bo1862/6-1)in cooperation with the Vienna Technical University (Austria) for the production of chiral lactones was further optimized and extended. Therefore, on the one hand the genes encoding the needed enzymes were cloned for co-expression into a single plasmid in different arrangements to be expressed in pseudo-operon mode, with the aim to lower the metabolic burden of the cascade host cell. One out of the welve created constructs showed a reasonable activity of 15.3 ± 1.2 U · gCDW-1. On the other hand, this cascade reaction was aimed to be extended by the use of a hydroxylating enzyme to enable the use of limonene as renewable and chiral precursor for the proposed production of chiral polymers. Therefore, the feasibility of cytochrome P450-monooxygenases was studied. These turned out to be not applicable due to their bad regioselectivity for the hydroxylation of limonene or due to the difficulties of activity reconstitution. As alternative system for an initial hydroxylation step the use of a Rhodococcus equi strain, which was isolated from Cellulosimicrobium cellulans EB-8-4 and which is capable of very regioselective limonene-hydroxylation, was investigated. Therefore, the dioxygenase cluster responsible for the desired reaction was identified and especially the recombinant expression in a suitable host (Pseudomonas putida S12) was further studied. The results from these experiments revealed that the recombinant expression needs to be further optimized to enable the use of the recombinant dioxygenase in combination with the other enzymes for cascade reactions. The third part of this PhD thesis dealt with the immobilization of an established cascade reaction for the synthesis of poly-[caprolactone] precursors. Therefore, the use of a rotating bed reactor (RBR) was investigated. Preliminary studies using single enzymes involved in the desired cascade reaction demonstrated the general feasibility of this reactor concept. Especially the reusability of the catalysts was highly improved, because the catalytic particles were protected very effectively from mechanical forces within the voids of the reactor. For further work-flow optimization the immobilization was transformed into an in situ process by the application of a gas-shear device, which leads to decreased capsule size and thereby to increased mass transfer inside the particles. The developed methods were applied for encapsulation of the cells containing the enzymes needed for the reaction. After additional improvement of the reaction parameters a conversion of 93% (based on substrate depletion) was reached using catalysts produced by the established encapsulation procedure. In summary, the described cascade reactions were successfully optimized by either co-expression, extension applying a dioxygenase or immobilization. Furthermore, the general feasibility of an RBR was demonstrated.

Enzymatic evolution and the corresponding relationship to substrate scope and catalytic promiscuity were targeted in this thesis. As enzyme examples, pig liver esterase (PLE), oleate hydratases and linoleate isomerases, as well as epoxide hydrolases (EH) and haloalkane dehalogenases (HLD) were used. The substrate scope and the enantiopreference of PLE was analyzed by molecular modeling and substrate docking, since different enantiomeric excesses were detected for the conversion of malonate diethyl esters, depending on the PLE isoenzyme. Additionally, fatty acid converting enzymes with high identity were found and analyzed to comprehend the switch of both activities. Furthermore, the evolutionary connection between EH and HLD was investigated by interconversion studies to implement an HLD acitivity in an EH. By directed evolution and rational design, both possibilities of protein engineering were realized. Finally, a new methodology for targeted, continuous in vivo evolution was established by a temperature-dependent mutagenesis frequency.

Der Replikationszyklus der Herpesviren ist sehr komplex und im Detail unzureichend verstanden. Die Funktionen und Eigenschaften einiger viraler Proteine sind bisher kaum charakterisiert. Folglich gibt es wenige Strukturmodelle dieser Proteine, wodurch beispielsweise eine rationale Medikamentenentwicklung kaum möglich war. Die Zielstellung dieser Arbeit war, neun dieser Proteine (pUL4, -7, -11, -16, -21, -26, -26.5, -32 und -33) aus dem pseudorabies virus (PrV) zu charakterisieren und nach Möglichkeit deren Struktur aufzuklären. Hierzu wurden die zur Verfügung gestellten Gensequenzen in geeignete bakterielle Expressionsvektoren umkloniert und in E. coli exprimiert. Lösliche Proteine wurden gereinigt und anschließend Kristallisationsexperimenten unterzogen, während unlösliche Proteine zum Teil auf ihre Renaturierbarkeit getestet wurden. Die Strukturen des kristallisierten N-terminalen Teils von pUL26 (Assemblin) wurden mittels Röntgenkristallographie aufgeklärt. Außerdem wurden alle Proteine in silico auf Signalsequenzen, Phosphorylierungen und Sequenzmuster untersucht. Von der N-terminalen Serinproteasedomäne (Assemblin) von pUL26 wurden drei Strukturen durch Röntgenkristallographie bestimmt: eine native dimere, eine inhibierte dimere, sowie eine native monomere Struktur. Letztere ist das erste bekannte Strukturmodell der monomeren Form eines Assemblins. In Verbindung mit den dimeren Strukturen konnte experimentell bestätigt werden, dass die Aktivierung der Assembline über die Verschiebung eines loop bei der Dimerisierung erfolgt. Die Umlagerung dieses loop basiert darauf, dass sich der in der monomeren Form teilweise flexible Dimerisierungsbereich durch die Dimerisierung etwas verändert und eine weitestgehend starre Konformation einnimmt. Die Helix α8 wird etwas verkürzt und die Helix α7 etwas verlängert und begradigt, wodurch sich der Oxyanionenloch-Loop vom Dimerisierungsbereich entfernt und ein ausgedehntes Wasserstoffbrückenbindungsnetzwerk aufbaut. In dieser Konformation stabilisiert der loop das Oxyanionenloch, wodurch die Protease aktiviert wird. Weiterhin wurde durch small-angle X-ray scattering bestätigt, dass der Dimerisierungsgrad von der Assemblin- und Mg&sup2+;-Ionenkonzentration abhängig ist. Diese Informationen zur Dimerisierung des PrV-Assemblins können dazu beitragen, rationale Medikamentenentwicklung zu betreiben. Daraus resultierende Wirkstoffe können die Dimerisierung und somit die Aktivierung dieses Schlüsselproteins verhindern. Durch die hohe Ähnlichkeit der Assembline in anderen Herpesviren, kann die nun bekannte monomere Struktur des PrV-Assemblins als Modell für die monomere Struktur anderer, zum Teil humanpathogener Herpesviren genutzt werden. Demzufolge könnte dieses Modell auch die Entwicklung von Medikamenten beispielsweise gegen das Epstein-Barr virus oder das herpes simplex virus 1 ermöglichen. Es stellte sich zudem heraus, dass die bisher für das PrV-pUL26 bzw. -pUL26.5 vorhergesagte zweite Assemblinschnittstelle (M-site) vermutlich nicht korrekt ist. Es wurde eine andere M-site vorgeschlagen, welche ebenfalls infrage kommt. Eine Charakterisierung in vitro war bei fünf der neun zu untersuchenden Proteine möglich. Die anderen vier Proteine (pUL7, -16, -21 und -32) konnten aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht erfolgreich exprimiert werden. Die Proteine pUL4, pUL26.5 und pUL33 wurden unlöslich exprimiert, wobei pUL33 renaturiert werden konnte. Der Membrananker pUL11 und die N-terminale Serinproteasedomäne von pUL26 konnten löslich exprimiert werden. Untersuchungen in silico ergaben, dass der Membrananker pUL11 aus dem pseudorabies virus wahrscheinlich ein nukleäres Exportsignal trägt, was bisher nicht bekannt war. Es ist zudem wahrscheinlich, dass pUL11 selbst keine definierte Struktur hat, da es mit 63 Aminosäuren ein sehr kleines Protein ist und über Sequenzmuster mit anderen Proteinen interagiert.

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Synthese von Fettsäureestern aus Pflanzenölen mit Methanol bzw. Ethanol in Gegenwart von Wasser durch die Lipase CAL-A zu optimieren, wobei insbesondere die Bildung von freien Fettsäuren minimiert werden sollte. Zunächst wurde ein Hochdurchsatztest zur Bestimmung der Acyltransferaseaktivität der CAL-A etabliert, welcher auf der Abnahme des Alkoholgehalts in Umesterungsreaktionen basiert. Dabei zeigte sich eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Umsätzen, die mit GC und dem Oxidase-Assay ermittelt wurden, wobei die Umsätze nicht zu gering sein sollten da sonst größere Schwankungen im Oxidase-Assay möglich sind. Durch das rationale Design anhand der gelösten Struktur der CAL-A konnten vier Mutagenesepositionen identifiziert werden: Thr118, Asp122, Thr221 und Glu370. Durch den Austausch der Aminosäurereste an diesen Positionen gegen hydrophobere Aminosäuren wurden 28 CAL-A Varianten generiert. Diese wurden für eine initiales, qualitatives Screening eingesetzt, indem drei CAL-A Varianten eine ähnliche bzw. erhöhte Esterbildung im Vergleich zum Wildtyp zu haben schienen. Die drei Varianten Thr118Ile, Asp122Leu und Thr221Ala wurden daraufhin für weitere Untersuchungen in P. pastoris im Bioreaktor hergestellt und in Biokatalysen verwendet. Eine erhöhte Esterbildung für die Varianten Thr118Ile und Thr221Ala ließ sich jedoch nicht bestätigen, allerdings zeigte sich, dass die CAL-A Variante Asp122Leu deutlich weniger freie Säure bildete als der CAL-A WT. In der anschließenden Charakterisierung von CAL-A Asp122Leu zeigte sich, dass diese Variante wie CAL-A WT auch thermostabil ist und dass beide Enzyme das gleiche pH- und Temperaturoptimum haben. Des Weiteren wurden CAL-A WT und Asp122Leu adsorptiv auf Lewatit VP OC 1600 immobilisiert und in Biokatalysen eingesetzt, in denen CAL-A Asp122Leu erneut deutlich weniger freie Säure bildete. Darüber hinaus wurde auch der Einfluss der Reaktionsbedingungen auf die Acyltransferaseaktivität der CAL-A untersucht. Es wurden dazu Biokatalysen mit Ethanol oder Methanol durchgeführt, in denen der Wassergehalt (5% oder 10% bezogen auf die Einwaage an Öl) und die Reaktionstemperatur (30°C, 40°C oder 50°C) variiert wurden. Die Biokatalysen mit Methanol zeigten dabei generell einen hohen Umsatz zwischen 85-95%, während die Biokatalysen mit Ethanol nur zu geringeren Umsätzen führten (55-85%). Allerdings zeigte sich in einem Langzeitstabilitätstest mit einer Biokatalysedauer von 97 h auch, dass Methanol das verwendete CAL-A Immobilisat stärker inaktiviert als Ethanol. Ebenso musste bei einem Wassergehalt von nur 5% die Methanolzugabe schrittweise erfolgen, um eine Inaktivierung des CAL-A Immobilisats zu verhindern. Somit konnte eine Optimierung der CAL A katalysierten Umesterungsreaktionen sowohl durch das Protein-Engineering des Biokatalysators als auch durch die Anpassung der Prozessbedingngen erreicht werden. Dabei wurden Erkenntnisse gewonnen, die auch zur Beurteilung der industriellen Anwendbarkeit eines solchen Prozesses beitragen können.