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Wie kaum eine andere Spezies weist der moderne Mensch eine außerordentlich große geographische Verbreitung auf. Die damit verbundene notwendige Anpassung an unterschiedlichste geographische Bedingungen führte unter anderem auch zu morphologischen Veränderungen am Schädel. Die Bedeutung geographischer Faktoren für bestimmte Schädelkomponenten wird jedoch sehr unterschiedlich diskutiert. Das trifft insbesondere auch auf die Größe und Form der Nasenhöhle zu. Da die Klärung solcher Zusammenhänge von Bedeutung für verschiedene Fachgebiete wie Anatomie, Physiologie, Forensische Medizin und Anthropologie ist, wurde in dieser Studie die Beziehung zwischen der Morphologie der Nasenhöhle zum Mittelgesicht unter Berücksichtigung klimatischer Faktoren untersucht. Die Untersuchungen der Nasenhöhlen erfolgte an 62 mazerierten adulten Schädeln von vier definierten menschlichen Populationen, die sich in ihrer geographischen Herkunft unterscheiden. Von allen Schädeln wurden zunächst koronare computertomographische Schichtaufnahmen angefertigt. Anschließend wurden an den CT-Schichtaufnahmen lineare Streckenmaße der Nasenhöhle erhoben. Des Weiteren erfolgte die Volumenbestimmung der Nasenhaupthöhle mit Hilfe der WinSurf-Software. Weiterhin erfolgte auch die Vermessung des äußeren Schädels mit linearen Maßen, um Beziehungen zwischen der Nasenhöhle und dem Gesichtsschädel zu untersuchen. Die externen Schädelmaße dienten außerdem der Berechnung des Gesichtsschädelvolumens. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit deuten auf Populationsunterschiede bezüglich der absoluten und relativen Größe des Nasenhöhlenvolumens hin, während das Gesichtsschädelvolumen zwischen den Populationen keine signifikanten Unterschiede aufweist. Die hier beobachteten Populationsunterschiede deuten darauf hin, dass ein Einfluss klimatischer Faktoren auf die Größe der Nasenhöhle nicht ausgeschlossen werden kann. Der von uns verwendete Nasenhöhlen-Gesichtsschädel-Index, der das Verhältnis zwischen dem Volumen der Nasenhöhle und dem Gesichtsschädelvolumen beschreibt, weist zwischen der Population Kyoto und den drei anderen Populationen statistisch signifikante Unterschiede auf. Der Nasenhöhlen-Gesichtsschädel-Index für die Kyoto-Population ist signifikant kleiner als bei den anderen drei Populationen. Unsere Untersuchungen ergaben einen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Nasenhöhlen-Gesichtsschädel-Index und der geographischen Herkunft der Schädel. Im Populationenvergleich konnten wir Größenunterschiede der Nasenhöhle feststellen, während Formunterschiede in Bezug auf die Cavitas nasi zwischen den Populationen nicht zu beobachten sind. Bei der asiatischen Population war ein signifikant höherer unterer Nasengang nachweisbar. Hinsichtlich der Asymmetrie des unteren Nasenganges ließen sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den Populationen erkennen. Es handelt sich bei den von uns betrachteten Populationen um eine fluktuierende Asymmetrie des unteren Nasenganges. Die durchgeführten Korrelations- und Regressionsanalysen erfolgten separat für jede Population. Als besonders aussagekräftiger Parameter der Cavitas nasi ist die Höhe der Nasenhöhle im Bereich des zweiten Molaren im Oberkiefer zu nennen, da dieser Parameter bei allen Populationen viele Korrelationen zu externen Schädelmaßen und dem Gesichtsschädelvolumen aufweist. Das Nasenhöhlenvolumen lässt sich am ehesten aus der Breite der Nasenhöhle ableiten, da für drei der vier Populationen für dieses Merkmalspaar signifikante Korrelationen nachweisbar sind. Obgleich die vorliegende Studie Hinweise auf einen Einfluss des Klimas auf die Variabilität der Morphologie der Nasenhöhle zeigen, ist das Design dieser Studie nicht geeignet, einen direkten Einfluss klimatischer Faktoren zu belegen. Hierfür sind weiterführende Studien notwendig, die auch den komplexen Wechselbeziehungen zwischen den verschiedenen Strukturelementen der Nasenhöhle Rechnung tragen.
Im Laufe der menschlichen Evolution sind Populationsunterschiede der Schädelmorphologie entstanden. Als eine Ursache dieser unterschiedlichen Schädelmorphologie werden neben phylogenetischen Faktoren auch Adaptionsprozesse durch geographische Bedingungen vermutet. Die genauen Auswirkungen geographischer und insbesondere klimatischer Einflüsse auf viele einzelne Schädelstrukturen sind jedoch nicht abschließend geklärt. Speziell wird der Einfluss der Umgebungstemperatur auf die Schädelpneumatisation kontrovers diskutiert. Während diesbezüglich Studien zum Volumen der Kieferhöhlen zu widersprüchlichen Ergebnissen kommen, liegen für die Volumina der Keilbeinhöhlen und der Siebbeinzellen keine Untersuchungen vor. In dieser Arbeit wurde deshalb die Beziehung der Morphologie aller Nasennebenhöhlen zum Gesichtsschädel unter Berücksichtigung klimatischer Faktoren untersucht. Die Untersuchung erfolgte an 63 mazerierten Schädeln von vier menschlichen Populationen, welche sich in der zeitlichen Einordnung und der geographischen Herkunft unterscheiden. Die Individuen der Population Jena lebten in der Jungsteinzeit und Bronzezeit in der zentralen Elbe-Saale-Region. Zwei weitere Populationen stammen aus Litauen. Die Population Plinkaigalis repräsentiert eisenzeitliche Dorfbewohner, während die Population Alytus einer mittelalterlichen Stadtbevölkerung zugeordnet ist. Die rezente Population Kyoto entstammt dem Gebiet der gleichnamigen japanischen Metropole. Anhand koronarer computertomographischer Schichtaufnahmen wurde das Volumen der einzelnen Nasennebenhöhlen mit Hilfe der Winsurf-Software errechnet. Zur Einordnung der erhobenen Volumina wurden alle Schädel extern vermessen. Ausgewählte Messwerte wurden zur Berechnung zweier Gesichtsschädelvolumina verwendet. Das erste Gesichtsschädelvolumen basiert auf den Maßen Gaumenlänge, Mittelgesichtsbreite und Obergesichtshöhe, während das zweite Gesichtsschädelvolumen aus den Werten der Gesichtslänge, Schädelbasislänge, Mittelgesichtsbreite und Obergesichtshöhe berechnet wurde. Um den Anteil der einzelnen Nasennebenhöhlen am Pneumatisationsgrad des Gesichtsschädels festzustellen, wurden die Volumina der einzelnen Sinus in Form von Indizes in Beziehung zu den Gesichtsschädelvolumina gesetzt. Die Messwerte wurden mittels H-Test (Kruskal-Wallis-Test) und Mann-Whitney-U-Test auf Populationsunterschiede untersucht. Zur Beurteilung von Merkmalszusammenhängen wurden Korrelations- und lineare Regressionsanalysen durchgeführt. Für die Korrelations- und Regressionsanalysen wurden die Populationen zusammengefasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen enge Zusammenhänge der Nasennebenhöhlenvolumina mit vielen externen Schädelmaßen. Während für das Volumen der Siebbeinzellen enge Zusammenhänge mit externen Maßen der Schädelbasis bestehen, korrelieren die Volumina der anderen Nasennebenhöhlen stärker mit den berechneten Gesichtsschädelvolumina. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit zeigen Populationsunterschiede der absoluten und relativen Volumina der Nasennebenhöhlen. Die Volumina aller vier Nasennebenhöhlen sind umso größer, je niedriger die mittlere Januartemperatur im Lebensraum der jeweiligen Population ist. Vergleicht man die absoluten und relativen Nasennebenhöhlenvolumina der Population mit der niedrigsten Temperatur mit den Volumina der Population mit der wärmsten Umgebungstemperatur, so sind die Unterschiede fast durchgängig signifikant. Die Ergebnisse deuten an, dass klimatische Einflüsse auf die Größe aller Nasennebenhöhlen nicht auszuschließen sind. Es sind weiterführende Untersuchungen notwendig, um den Zusammenhang zu belegen.
Forests are and have been of major importance to cover a variety of societal needs. Today the demands on forests are ever increasing with sequestering carbon and balancing the climate, to name only a few. To cover those requirements forests need vital, productive, and sustainable. A difficult concept as such as the understanding of a healthy forest varies greatly. Nevertheless, forests still have to produce a sufficient amount of yield while threatened by changing climate conditions. These are predicted to bring extended and more intense drought periods as well as a higher frequency of storms and the promotion of secondary disturbances like insects calamities to also rise. In this complex situation of high and versatile demand the focus is on the allocation of the “right” forest. Forest management is requested to balance the needs of humans against those of wildlife against those of the trees themselves. To gain the respective knowledge on species responses and provenance growth, now and in the future research gaps need to be closed. All factors influencing tree growth and therefore ultimately yield need to be understood and special focus needs to be on the interactions within the forest ecosystem. One of the parameters in understanding aggregated tree growth is the dynamic of growth. This can be visualised by dendroecological methods, providing a picture of growth within the individual years. Growth dynamics are dependent on multiple factors, some, like soil being preconditioning and other like climate causing short-term responses. In this thesis I focus on the influence of climate on annual tree growth using a new approach of daily climate data to calculate climate-growth correlations. This method has the advantage of representing tree processes better than the former approach of using monthly means. Furthermore the program enables the user to feed climate scenarios and therefore estimate future growth. To gather information on species as well as provenance differences to provide advice to foresters I used different trials in Britain and Germany. On the British site different oak species were planted while the German sites are stocked with various spruce provenances. For the latter we additionally used stable carbon isotope analysis to calculate intrinsic water use efficiency. The climate-growth correlations revealed differences between the oak species with a generally higher linkage to precipitation than temperature. While the differences are clear, the question of thresholds and the role of extreme events became apparent in this work. VII Abstract Assessing the impact of extreme events using dendrometer data revealed little differences in the response to short term events of the three investigated species, oak, beech, and pine. We were able to pick up stimulus-response-relationships and as a novel result no species-specific responses were found when focusing on such a small time frame. The provenance trials offered the opportunity to investigate the potential of the use of daily climate data more closely. The two contrasting sites planted with six spruce provenances each gave an insight on the adaptive potential of provenances as well as an indication on the response times. Depending on the proceeding environmental and the local climate conditions decisions have to be made on the species or provenance selection. This thesis provides a method as well as insight on the behaviour of the important European species beech, oak, pine, and spruce. It, however, highlights the limitations such methods have for large scale estimates. While general trends on the response to specific soil factors can be used, the climatic responses, be it thresholds or climate-growth correlations can only be seen within the ecological context of their sampling region.
Global change is one of the major challenges our society faces in recent times and is becoming increasingly noticeable in all aspects of our lives. In the last ten years, reports about droughts in Europe increased, contrary to expected natural climate variations and are attributed as indicators of climate change. Droughts resulted in a severe decrease in water levels of lakes, rivers and reservoirs, posing socio-economic and environmental challenges. Climate scenarios by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) project increasing temperatures, more frequent, longer and/or more intense heat waves and warm spells, and an increase in aridity with short-term droughts in the upcoming decades for Western and Central Europe. Some areas – such as Northeast Germany – are already affected by negative water balances and the lowering of lake and groundwater levels. Additionally to possible challenges in water availability, excess nutrients and heavy metals from industrial emissions, agricultural fertilisers and land use changes lead to declining water quality. In the past century, extensive eutrophication and environmental pollution have become major water quality issues in many freshwater bodies.
Nonetheless, water and its availability in a sufficient quantity and quality are prerequisites for life and must be prioritised in future development. The European Union aims for a good status in all surface and groundwater bodies by 2027 regarding their ecological, chemical and quantitative status. However, a profound understanding of eutrophication, pollution sources, and water bodies' reference conditions – referring to pre-anthropogenic conditions – should be available for each system to apply integrated restoration strategies. Moreover, an in-depth understanding of long-term climate variability and its dynamics is indispensable to approach these climate change challenges and reliably predict water availability.
During the past decades, numerous paleoenvironmental studies have been carried out on Northern German sediment archives, using mainly lacustrine sediments to reconstruct hydroclimatic variability, often inferring lake-level variations as key indicators. However, most studies were carried out in areas affected by more maritime or continental climate. Studies from the transition zone are rare. Only few existing studies offer high-resolution records and/or robust chronologies, which limits the understanding of past environmental changes significantly. Besides, the Northern German lowlands have been anthropogenically affected since at least the Neolithic (~5.6 ka cal BP) and, in particular, forest composition and density have recently been shown to have at least partially an impact on lake-level variations. However, a reliable distinction between climatic impacts and anthropogenic interferences is widely missing, which is a problem because many studies were conducted on rather small lacustrine systems in which expected anthropogenic signals are higher, and single events may overprint the climatic signals. These biases lead to an incoherent picture of the past hydroclimatic variability in Northern Germany during the Holocene. To overcome this situation, it is inevitable to identify a suitable sedimentary archive from the transition zone – preferably a large lacustrine system in which natural (supra-)regional paleoenvironmental signals are expected to be not overprinted by single events. Moreover, it is necessary to establish robust chronologies and apply high-resolution methods to infer past environmental changes in a high temporal resolution. Taken together, this could contribute to an enhanced understanding of past environmental and climatic changes in Northern Germany.
This thesis consolidates the evidence for Schweriner See to act as a suitable sedimentary archive in Northern Germany for (supra-)regional climate reconstructions. Schweriner See is a large lowland lake in Northern Germany located within the transition zone from maritime to continental climate. In the first step, (paleo)lacustrine landforms, i.e. beach ridges, subaerial nearshore bar, and a silting-up sequence, are investigated along the north-eastern shoreline using a combined approach of sedimentology (e.g. grain size variations) and the relatively novel method of luminescence profiling offering relative age determinations to understand depositional processes and their chronological framework. Absolute age information is mainly inferred by OSL dating. Secondly, an important prerequisite to interpreting information obtained from lacustrine sediment archives is a thorough understanding of processes controlling sedimentation. Schweriner See is characterized by a complex morphometry, which influences in-lake processes, i.e. i) in-lake productivity, ii) carbonate precipitation and iii) wind- and wave-induced processes, resulting in a distinct spatial heterogeneity. This thesis shows that it is crucial first to understand sedimentary depositional processes and controlling mechanisms to i) select suitable coring location(s) and ii) reconstruct paleoenvironmental and hydroclimatic variations reliably.
Based on bathymetric considerations and inferred in-lake processes, two main coring locations were identified to infer i) the anthropogenic impacts and ii) hydroclimatic variations. Short sediment records from the shallow water areas (< 15 m water depth) cover the most recent environmental history of Schweriner See. A well-dated sedimentary record (210Pb/137Cs and 14C dating) links distinct sedimentary and geochemical changes with historical events. Schweriner See was extensively affected by lake-wide eutrophication and contamination, closely related to sewage and population dynamics within the catchment. The water quality only improved after the German Reunification in 1990 CE when sewage was precluded from Schweriner See. Contamination trends at Schweriner See showed similar trends to different archives along the southern Baltic Sea, implying a common regional driving mechanism, e.g. environmental legalisation.
A well-dated sediment record from the profundal zone (52 m water depth) allowed the reconstruction of large-scale atmospheric conditions during the past 3 ka cal BP by inferring winter temperature variability, the moisture source region and/or evaporative lake water enrichment, which resemble variations in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). The NAO greatly influences the Central European climate, affecting, for example, surface air temperature, precipitation or storm tracks. During 3-2.8 ka and 2.1-0.8 ka cal BP, predominantly positive NAO conditions are reconstructed, which are characterized by warmer winter temperatures, moisture conditions bringing isotopically enriched precipitation from the southern/central North Atlantic to Northern Central Europe and/or warmer temperatures that may result in a higher evaporative isotopic lake water enrichment as a result of northwards displaced westerlies. Conversely, during 2.8-2.1 ka and 0.8-0.1 ka cal BP, results correspond to predominantly negative NAO phases influenced by southwards displaced westerlies. Frequent atmospheric blocking allows for the intrusion of northerly or easterly winds, resulting in colder winter temperatures, isotopically depleted precipitation from the Northern Atlantic and Arctic region and/or a lower evaporative lake water enrichment. In addition to these long-term changes in atmospheric conditions, short-term hydroclimatic variations have been reconstructed, mainly reflecting lake-level variations in conjunction with precipitation variability, with the proxy signal being additionally amplified by wind speed and wave motion. Comparisons with other archives support these results.
So far, the paleoenvironmental reconstruction is limited to the Late Holocene, but initial dating results imply possible interferences until the Late Pleistocene. Therefore, future studies should focus on extending the profundal record from Schweriner See further back in time, providing a high-resolution record covering both the Holocene and possibly the Late Pleistocene.
Global climate change is occurring all over the world, but in the Arctic the climate is changing more rapidly and drastically than in many other parts of our planet. Many species that are already at their climatic limit need to adapt to recent climate conditions or migrate in order to not go extinct. The possibilities of adaption include phenotypic plasticity and adaptation to various extents. This is also the case for white spruce P. glauca, which belongs to the conifers and thus in the largest group of gymnosperms still living today. Among the approx. 600 extant conifer species white spruce is one of the most widespread trees in North American boreal forests. Its range extends from 69° N in the Canadian Northwest Territories to the Great Lakes at about 44° N, where it occurs from sea level to an altitude of about 1520 m (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Site related, climate-dependent differences in white spruce reproduction can be seen as a strategy to survive under the harsh climatic conditions at Alaska's treelines: Besides sexual reproduction, the vegetative propagation occurs in the white spruce as an additional reproductive mechanism. This can be realized by "layering" when the lower branches of the tree crown touch the ground and develop roots to later grow as a separate individual with or without a connection to the mother tree. Known as other mechanisms of vegetative propagation are also the rooting of fallen trees which were not completely uprooted, and the "root suckering", in which new shoots sprout from the roots of the tree. However, the latter was not yet observed in the genus Picea. With the help of short, repetitive, non-coding sequences in the genome, which are therefore not subject to selection and are called microsatellites, these clones can be determined by genotyping.
For this purpose, using different polymorphic microsatellites, an individual multilocus genotype is created for each tree, by means of which it can be compared with all other trees of the same species.
In the first part of this work (article I), the occurrence of clones in three study areas at Alaskan treelines are examined and the reasons for their appearance in variable numbers are discussed. For this purpose, 2571 white spruces (P. glauca) were genotyped and their position was determined via differential GPS in the field. The percentage of clonal trees is higher in areas with harsh climatic conditions and correlates with the height of the lowest branches of the tree crown. This suggests that the vegetative propagation of white spruce is a backup strategy for times when climatic conditions hamper sexual reproduction. The correlation between clone numbers and tree crown height suggests "layering" as the main mechanism for cloning whereas selection for vegetative reproduction seems to be very unlikely shown by the results for genetic differentiation between the clonal and the singleton trees in this study.
In the second part of this work (articles II and III), the influence of environmental factors and phenotypic traits on the mycobiome of the needles (including all fungi living on (epiphytic) and in (endophytic) the needles) in our study areas in Alaska was investigated. The mycobiome of the white spruce needles was chosen as a proxy for the parasite infection rate by fungi and thus serves as a fitness parameter. For this purpose, all epiphytic and endophytic fungal species were analyzed by a metabarcoding analysis.
In article II, 48 trees of one study area at Alaska’s northern treeline (Brooks Range) were examined for differences in mycobiome due to genetic differentiation, phenotypic characteristics and / or habitat characteristics. The trees used for this study were sampled from two adjacent plots on a south-facing mountain slope with an elevation gradient from 875 to 950 meters above sea level. It could be shown that, in contrast to the trees genotype, the height above sea level, the mountain slope, as well as the height and age of the trees have a significant impact on the mycobiome. The genetic differentiation between the tree individuals, however, showed no significant effect.
Based on article II we examined the mycobiome composition of a total of 96 trees in 2 plots (16 trees each) at three sites in Alaska over a distance of 500 kilometers. Additionally, we sampled needles of two different ages for each tree (current year and three years old needles) summing up to 192 samples in total. The incentive of this study (article III) was to investigate the influence of origin and age of spruce needles on their mycobiome and if there is a genetic predisposition that is related to the fungal species community. In addition, the sampling design was improved by collecting needles from all four orientations (North, South, East and West) and sampling trees at a standardized distance to each other to avoid systematic errors. Comparable to article II the influence of the trees genetics on the species community of the epiphytic and endophytic fungi of the white spruce needles seems to be very unlikely. In contrast, a significant influence of the geographic origin and the needle age on the species structure of the needle inhabiting fungal species was found. The phenotypic tree traits height and dbh (diameter at breast height) had only minor influence and did in fact explain less than 2% of the mycobiome variance. Using Illumina sequencing, 10.2 million reads from the nucleotide sequence between the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genes could be obtained, which yielded in 1575 ribotypes (called operational taxonomic unit, OTU) for the fungi. These were compared with a reference database to compare and assign them to known fungal species. For example, 942 OTUs with >95% similarity could be identified as known species, with 1975 samples identified on genus level and 2683 when determined to family level. The most pronounced difference between the two studies (article II and III) were due to the fungal species of the class of Pucciniomycetes, more specifically the genus Chrysomyxa which belongs to the rust fungi and is plant pathogenic. In the study of article II (sampling in 2012), Pucciniomycetes accounted for only a minor portion of the assigned DNA sequences. In the second study (article III, sampling in 2015) they accounted for more than half of all basidiomycetes found, which in turn contain 20.0% of all DNA sequences, the second largest phylum found beside Ascomycetes (51.4%).