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Mutualisms are ubiquitous in nature and shape whole ecosystems. Although species benefit by interacting with each other, they permanently act selfishly. As a consequence, the involved partners must balance gaining the maximal benefit while accepting a certain amount of costs. Changes in the environment, however, may alter selection pressures and lead to a shift in the relative costs and benefits for both involved species. Due to this complexity, many mutualisms and their underlying processes, such as the dependence of the involved species on each other, are only poorly understood. Moreover, in several so-called mutualistic interactions it is unclear if they are in fact beneficial for all partners because detailed cost-benefit analyses are missing. The aim of my thesis was to contribute to a better understanding of the basic principles of mammal-plant mutualisms with special emphasis on the interdependence of the involved species. Using the interaction between an insectivorous bat species (Kerivoula hardwickii) and carnivorous pitcher plants (genus Nepenthes) as a model system, I conducted a detailed cost-benefit analysis to test if the partners interact mutualistically and are strongly dependent on one another. I hypothesised that pitchers of these plants serve as high quality roosts for the bats while the bats in turn fertilise the plants via their nutritious faeces. For the involved species the costs of the interaction should be lower than the gained benefits, but general costs should increase in the absence of the partner. Over the course of my field research, I found the bats roosting in three Nepenthes species, but the bats occupied intact pitchers of only one species, Nepenthes hemsleyana. In Nepenthes bicalcarata and Nepenthes ampullaria, the bats used senescing or damaged pitchers whose high amount of digestive fluid had drained off. Thus, only N. hemsleyana was potentially able to digest bat faecal matter, and thereby benefit from the bats. My cost-benefit analysis showed that N. hemsleyana plants strongly benefited from their bat interaction partner: In feeding experiments the plants gained between 34% and 95% of their nitrogen from bat faeces, which significantly improved their growth, photosynthesis and survival. In contrast, plants without access to faeces could not fully compensate the induced lack of nutrients by using arthropod prey. Field observations revealed no obvious costs for the pitcher plant. N. hemsleyana pitchers occupied by bats did not differ in their lifespan from unoccupied ones as bats did not injure the plants’ tissue. The interaction was also advantageous for K. hardwickii because N. hemsleyana offered high quality roosts with a favourable microclimate and low parasite infestation risk. Consequently, bats roosting in N. hemsleyana pitchers were in better condition than those roosting in dead N. bicalcarata pitchers. Although N. hemsleyana pitchers are rare in the natural habitat, bats could easily find and identify them due to an echo reflector, which reduces time and energy costs for roost detection. Most N. hemsleyana plants continuously provided at least one intact pitcher meaning bats could return to the same plants over a period of several months or even years. The interaction between K. hardwickii and N. hemsleyana can be classified as an asymmetric facultative mutualism with stronger dependence of the plant partner. N. hemsleyana has outsourced arthropod capture and digestion to its mutualistic bat partner while arthropod attraction is strongly reduced. Contrastingly, several populations of K. hardwickii frequently use alternative roosts. Strong selective pressure on the plants could be the consequence to attract bats with a potential stabilising effect on the interaction: N. hemsleyana has to outcompete the involuntarily offered roosts of the other Nepenthes species in terms of quality and accessibility. My thesis revealed complex interdependencies in an animal-plant mutualism. This study exemplifies that rigorous cost-benefit analyses are crucial for the classification of interspecific interactions and the characterisation of how the involved species affect and depend on each other.
Presumably every organism on earth is involved in at least one mutualistic interaction with one or several other species. To interact with each other, the species need traits that provide benefits to the partner species. Surprisingly, the function of traits for the stabilization of mutualisms has rarely been investigated, despite of a general lack of knowledge how mutualisms are maintained. The aim of this work was to find functional traits, which stabilize the mutualism between a bat species and a carnivorous pitcher plant in Northern Borneo. Kerivoula hardwickii is the only bat species known to roost in pitcher-shaped trapping organs of Palaeotropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes). These bats fertilize the pitcher plant Nepenthes hemsleyana with their nutritious nitrogen-rich faeces while roosting inside the pitchers. The plants have outsourced capture and digestion of arthropod prey to the bats on which they strongly rely for nutrient acquisition. The bats in contrast are less dependent on their mutualism partner as they also roost in pitchers of two further Nepenthes species as well as in developing furled leaves of various plant species in the order Zingiberales. In earlier studies, we found that N. hemsleyana outcompetes alternative roosts by providing high-quality roosts for the bats. However, which traits exactly stabilize the mutualism between K. hardwickii and N. hemsleyana was still unclear. I found that both the bats and the pitcher plants show traits, which have the potential to stabilize their interaction. On the level of morphological traits, I found that the pitchers have a low fluid level and a particular shape that provide just enough roosting space for one individual of the solitary K. hardwickii, a mother with juvenile or a mating couple. The bats have enlarged thumb and foot pads that enable them to cling to the smooth surfaces of their roosts without using their claws. This avoids damage to the sensitive N. hemsleyana pitchers. On the level of communicational traits, again N. hemsleyana acquired morphological structures that act as effective ultrasound-reflectors, which guide the echo-orientating bats to the opening of the pitchers and help the bats to identify their mutualism partner. The bats’ calls on the other hand are characterized by extraordinary high starting frequencies and broad bandwidths, which enable K. hardwickii to easily locate pitchers of N. hemsleyana and other Nepenthes species in their dense habitats. Finally, on the level of behavioural traits the bats often but not always prefer their mutualism partner to other roosts when they can select roosts in their natural environment or in behavioural experiments. The reason for this behaviour seems to be a combination of 1) N. hemsleyana’s superior quality compared to alternative roosts and 2) different roosting traditions of the bats. In conclusion, the mutualism between bats and pitcher plants is asymmetric as N. hemsleyana is more dependent on K. hardwickii than vice versa. For the plants bat faeces present their most important nutrient source. In contrast, K. hardwickii can select between alternative roosting plants. This asymmetric dependency is reflected in the specifity and function of the traits that stabilize the mutualism in each of the two involved species. Especially on the morphological level, N. hemsleyana seems to have evolved several traits that perfectly fit to K. hardwickii. In contrast, the bats’ traits more generally facilitate their roosting in funnel-shaped plant structures and their occurrence in cluttered habitats. Thus, they are probably exaptations (i.e. traits that evolved for another reason) that are nevertheless functional and stabilize the mutualism with N. hemsleyana. This plant‘s superior roost quality is likely a consequence of the competition with alternative roosting plants and is a pre-requisite for the bats to prefer N. hemsleyana. Moreover, my study confirms earlier findings that asymmetric dependencies support the stabilization of mutualistic interactions. Finally, my work indicates that the specifity of functional traits can be used as a measure to determine mutual dependencies of mutualistic partners.