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- MDPI (33)
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- Frontiers Media S.A. (20)
- Springer Nature (7)
- IOP Publishing (4)
- SAGE Publications (3)
- Nature Publishing Group (2)
- Copernicus (1)
Climate Change-Induced Shift of Tree Growth Sensitivity at a Central Himalayan Treeline Ecotone
(2018)
Production-Integrated Compensation in Environmental Offsets—A Review of a German Offset Practice
(2018)
Planning Modes for Major Transportation Infrastructure Projects (MTIPs): Comparing China and Germany
(2018)
Water Consumption of Agriculture and Natural Ecosystems along the Ili River in China and Kazakhstan
(2017)
Peatlands are wetland ecosystems covering a relatively small area of the World (~3%), but at the same time storing excessive amounts of carbon for a very long time (equivalent to the four times global annual net primary production). As carbon sinks, peatlands work in spite of their slow growth, absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) through the photosynthetic activity of the peatland plants and their low growth rates, and because high groundwater table removes oxygen from the soil and slows down the decomposition of the dead plant matter. Because of the relative lack of the oxygen in the peat, especially compared to the mineral soils, methanogen populations in the peatlands are abundant, and releasing methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas, to the atmosphere. Therefore, peatlands are generally at the same time significant carbon sinks and stores as well as the methane sources. The balance among the two peatland gass fluxes (CO2 and CH4) will dictate the impact of any given peatland on the global climate and primarily driven by hydrology, in the form of the groundwater table levels.
Because of the slow decomposition rates, and from radiocarbon dating of the peat as well as the subfossil records buried in it, carbon stored in peatlands is locked for a very long time (centuries to millennia). It is, therefore, crucial to gain insights into the development of peatlands and their gas balance through time. One way to get both is by studying peatland hydrology in the form of the groundwater table levels and their historical variations. Unfortunately, intensive monitoring of peatland groundwater table, when available, is an only a recent endeavor. Therefore, we need to employ proxies to reconstruct the past by leveraging the present. In statistics, proxy variables are often used when the observations of the variable of interest, are either missing or too difficult to obtain.
In this thesis, I tested whether we can use the radial growth of the Scots pines growing on peat as proxies to the peatland hydrology. To that end, I studied growth responses of the peatland Scots pines. Other proxies can and are used for the reconstructions of the groundwater table levels, but tree-growth is widely used as one of the proxies to reconstruct past environments which is at the same time annually resolved.
First, I examined the growth ecology of the peatland Scots pines by looking at their intra-annual development and trying to find relationships between it and environmental factors while at the same time comparing it with the Scots pines growing at the forest sites. I first tried with wood anatomy and found that, unfortunately, peatland Scots pines do not form enough wood cells, and consequently do not have high temporal resolution, necessary to investigate the intra-annual patterns of the radial growth. Initial results from wood anatomical investigations were interesting none-the-less, indicating that peatland Scots pines might have smaller cell features than the Scots pines from forests, but might at the same time maintain Early/Latewood ratios of those same features.
After I found that wood anatomical series were not resolved enough I decided to go with dendrometers, linear displacement sensors which constantly monitor the variations of stem radius, to get insights into the intra-annual growth patterns of the peatland Scots pines. Before using dendrometers for ecological investigations, I was involved in implementing routines commonly used in the analysis of the dendrometer signals and bringing them to R in the form of the dendrometeR package.
At one peatland complex, I installed dendrometers on ten trees in total at both peatland and forest sites and compared the pattern of the standardized signal. I inferred from the comparisons and classifications that the signal from two sites was indistinguishable for the dendrometer series shorter than five days. Furthermore, the most important environmental factor driving the radial variation at the peatland site was hydrological, daily relative humidity, indicating further that peatland hydrology might indeed be the driver behind peatland Scots pine growth.
Finally, I looked at the growth responses of peatland Scots pines from central Estonia using dendrochronological methods. Peatland hydrology, in the form of the groundwater table levels, was indeed the environmental factor with the strongest, and also stationary, correlations with the radial growth of the peatland Scots pine. That relationship indicated that peatland Scots pines are indeed possible proxies for reconstructing past levels of the peatland groundwater tables.
My study further indicated that the growth response of the peatland Scots pines was non-linear, further complicating the reconstructions of the past peatland hydrology. However, the strength of the growth response was proportional to the general hydrological regime, expressed as median groundwater table level. As the hydrological regime of the peatland does not vary considerably on the annual scales, but more on decadal it might be more appropriate to find another, independent, proxy to the hydrological regime first, and than use annually resolved radial growth of the peatland Scots pine to reconstruct past levels of the peatland groundwater table.
Durch zymografische Untersuchungen und Massenspektrometrie (MS) wurden neun Proteasen vom Subtilisin-Typ im Wurzelexsudat von Nicotiana tabacum identifiziert. Ein Peptid-Antikörper wurde produziert, der die affinitätschromatografische Anreicherung einer tobacco root exuded subtilase (TREXS, XP_016501597.1) und zweier Isoformen sowie eines Peroxidase-artigen und eines SERK2-artigen Proteins ermöglichte. Basierend auf dem Subtilase-EST, der in der MS identifiziert worden war, wurde die full-length cDNA von TREXS durch 5'RACE und 3'RACE sequenziert und die gDNA kloniert. Das intronfreie TREXS-Gen codiert eine 756 Aminosäuren lange Subtilase mit Signalpeptid, I9-Inhibitordomäne, PA- und Fn-III-artiger Domäne. Der Nachweis von TREXS-mRNA in Blattgewebe zeigte, dass TREXS nicht exklusiv auf Wurzeln beschränkt ist. Phylogenetische Analysen zeigten, dass SDD1 die ähnlichste Subtilase aus A. thaliana zu TREXS ist. Mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit ist TREXS jedoch nicht das Ortholog zu SDD1, weil zum einen strukturähnlichere Subtilasen zu SDD1 in Tabak existieren und zum anderen SDD1 an der Ausprägung von Stomata in der Blattepidermis beteiligt ist, TREXS hingegen im Wurzelexsudat vorkommt. Das
MS-identifizierte SERK2-artige Protein, das bei der Peptid-Antikörper-Affinitätschromatografie zusammen mit TREXS angereichert wurde, ist Kandidat als Substrat für TREXS, weil es potenziell durch IgG–TREXS–SERK2-like-Interaktion co-angereinigt wurde, die in-silico docking-Vorhersagen zwischen den modellierten Molekülen von TREXS und SERK2-like einen proteolytisch relevanten Bindungszustand vorhersagt und es strukturelle Ähnlichkeit mit LRP, einem bekannten Substrat der Subtilase P69C, hat. Die transiente Expression rekombinanter TREXS in N. benthamiana war möglich, zeigte sich jedoch kritisch gegenüber C- und N-terminal fusionierten Anhängen: Transiente Transformation mit TREXS oder TREXS:Strep-tag führte zu proteolytisch aktivem Protein. Jedoch war der C-terminale Strep-tag nicht funktionell. Längere C-terminale Anhänge und auch TREXS-Mutanten mit inaktiviertem katalytischen Zentrum erbrachten kein Genprodukt. C-terminales GFP erbrachte – auch bei mutiertem katalytischen Zentrum – stets nur den GFP-Anteil des Fusionsproteins.
The rapid anthropogenic climate change that is projected for the 21st century is predicted to have severe impacts on ecosystems and on the provision of ecosystem services. With respect to the longevity of trees, forestry in particular has to adapt now to future climate change. This requires profound multidisciplinary knowledge on the direct and indirect climate sensitivity of forest ecosystems on various spatial scales. Predictions on growth declines due to increasing drought exposition during climate change are widely recognized for European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), which is the major forest tree in European temperate deciduous forests. However, research from other continents or other biomes has shown that winter climate change may also affect forest growth dynamics due to declining snow cover and increased soil cooling. So far, this winter cold sensitivity is largely unexplored in Europe. Thus, particularly focussing on forest growth dynamics and winter cold sensitivity, the goal of this PhD-project was to explore how climate sensitivity of forest ecosystems differs regionally. By doing so, the project aimed to deliver insights about possibilities and limits of upscaling regional knowledge to a global understanding of climate sensitivity. To achieve these goals, this PhD-project integrated five studies (Manuscripts 1–5) that investigated the climate sensitivity of biogeochemical cycles, plant species composition in forests, and forest growth dynamics across spatial scales. In particular, a large-scale gradient-design field experiment simulated the influence of winter climate change on forest ecosystems by snow cover and soil temperature manipulations (Manuscript 1). This study indicated that soil cooling and decreased root nutrient uptake may indirectly reduce growth of adult forest trees. Moreover, this study indicated uniform ecological sensitivity to soil temperature changes across sites along a large winter temperature gradient (ΔT = 4 K across 500 km), irrespective of the site-specific history of snow cover conditions, which motivates upscaling from local winter climate change studies to the regional scale. Although regional climate drives growth of adult forest trees, local factors, such as site-specific edaphic conditions, might control plants in the forest understory. This assumption was tested by mapping the forest understory composition along the same winter temperature gradient as introduced above (Manuscript 2). Across sites, this study found that edaphic conditions explained the spatial turnover in the forest understory composition more than climate, which might moderate direct climate change impacts on the forest understory composition. However, edaphic conditions, forest structure, and climate are linked by triangular interactions. Thus, climate change might still indirectly affect the forest vegetation dynamics. Moreover, a dendroecological study focussed on the same winter temperature gradient from central to cold-marginal beech populations as above in order to identify gradual changes in summer drought and winter cold sensitivity in tree growth (Manuscript 3). Towards the cold distribution margin, the influence of drought on tree growth gradually decreased, while growth reductions were increasingly related to winter cold due to harsher winter climate. By a large-scale dendroecological network study assessed the relationship of growth dynamics to climate and reproductive effort in beech forests across Europe (Manuscript 4). Indeed, this study found the general pattern across the distribution range of beech that high temperature controlled growth indirectly via resource allocation to reproduction. However, the strong, direct drought signal that could be generally detected from dry-marginal to central populations vanished towards the cold-marginal populations, where the more focussed study of Manuscript 3 identified a stronger relationship of tree growth to winter cold. Further extending the scope of this PhD-thesis to global scales, litter decomposition rates were assessed across biomes (Manuscript 5). This study found a robust relationship between climate and decomposition rates, but it also demonstrated large within-biome variability on a local scale. These local scale differences might depend on habitat conditions that, in turn, could be modulated by climate change, which calls for a better exploration of indirect climate sensitivity. In conclusion, this PhD-thesis highlighted that multidisciplinary research can advance the understanding of ecological interactions in forest ecosystems under changing climate scenarios. In this PhD-project, a winter climate change experiment, where site-representative target trees were selected by means of dendroecology, contributed to a mechanistic understanding of winter cold sensitivity in forest growth dynamics. Dendroecological investigations then put the findings in a broader temporal and spatial context by describing local climate sensitivity of tree growth on different spatial scales. This thesis further shows that global generalizations about the relationship of climate and ecological processes in ecosystem models have to be critically reviewed for the need of local and regional adjustment because these processes might experience considerable regional- or local-scale variation. However, this thesis reports uniform sensitivity of ecological processes to altered winter soil temperature regimes across a large winter temperature gradient. Thus, upscaling from insights of previous winter climate change experiments to regional scales is encouraged.
Global climate change is occurring all over the world, but in the Arctic the climate is changing more rapidly and drastically than in many other parts of our planet. Many species that are already at their climatic limit need to adapt to recent climate conditions or migrate in order to not go extinct. The possibilities of adaption include phenotypic plasticity and adaptation to various extents. This is also the case for white spruce P. glauca, which belongs to the conifers and thus in the largest group of gymnosperms still living today. Among the approx. 600 extant conifer species white spruce is one of the most widespread trees in North American boreal forests. Its range extends from 69° N in the Canadian Northwest Territories to the Great Lakes at about 44° N, where it occurs from sea level to an altitude of about 1520 m (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Site related, climate-dependent differences in white spruce reproduction can be seen as a strategy to survive under the harsh climatic conditions at Alaska's treelines: Besides sexual reproduction, the vegetative propagation occurs in the white spruce as an additional reproductive mechanism. This can be realized by "layering" when the lower branches of the tree crown touch the ground and develop roots to later grow as a separate individual with or without a connection to the mother tree. Known as other mechanisms of vegetative propagation are also the rooting of fallen trees which were not completely uprooted, and the "root suckering", in which new shoots sprout from the roots of the tree. However, the latter was not yet observed in the genus Picea. With the help of short, repetitive, non-coding sequences in the genome, which are therefore not subject to selection and are called microsatellites, these clones can be determined by genotyping.
For this purpose, using different polymorphic microsatellites, an individual multilocus genotype is created for each tree, by means of which it can be compared with all other trees of the same species.
In the first part of this work (article I), the occurrence of clones in three study areas at Alaskan treelines are examined and the reasons for their appearance in variable numbers are discussed. For this purpose, 2571 white spruces (P. glauca) were genotyped and their position was determined via differential GPS in the field. The percentage of clonal trees is higher in areas with harsh climatic conditions and correlates with the height of the lowest branches of the tree crown. This suggests that the vegetative propagation of white spruce is a backup strategy for times when climatic conditions hamper sexual reproduction. The correlation between clone numbers and tree crown height suggests "layering" as the main mechanism for cloning whereas selection for vegetative reproduction seems to be very unlikely shown by the results for genetic differentiation between the clonal and the singleton trees in this study.
In the second part of this work (articles II and III), the influence of environmental factors and phenotypic traits on the mycobiome of the needles (including all fungi living on (epiphytic) and in (endophytic) the needles) in our study areas in Alaska was investigated. The mycobiome of the white spruce needles was chosen as a proxy for the parasite infection rate by fungi and thus serves as a fitness parameter. For this purpose, all epiphytic and endophytic fungal species were analyzed by a metabarcoding analysis.
In article II, 48 trees of one study area at Alaska’s northern treeline (Brooks Range) were examined for differences in mycobiome due to genetic differentiation, phenotypic characteristics and / or habitat characteristics. The trees used for this study were sampled from two adjacent plots on a south-facing mountain slope with an elevation gradient from 875 to 950 meters above sea level. It could be shown that, in contrast to the trees genotype, the height above sea level, the mountain slope, as well as the height and age of the trees have a significant impact on the mycobiome. The genetic differentiation between the tree individuals, however, showed no significant effect.
Based on article II we examined the mycobiome composition of a total of 96 trees in 2 plots (16 trees each) at three sites in Alaska over a distance of 500 kilometers. Additionally, we sampled needles of two different ages for each tree (current year and three years old needles) summing up to 192 samples in total. The incentive of this study (article III) was to investigate the influence of origin and age of spruce needles on their mycobiome and if there is a genetic predisposition that is related to the fungal species community. In addition, the sampling design was improved by collecting needles from all four orientations (North, South, East and West) and sampling trees at a standardized distance to each other to avoid systematic errors. Comparable to article II the influence of the trees genetics on the species community of the epiphytic and endophytic fungi of the white spruce needles seems to be very unlikely. In contrast, a significant influence of the geographic origin and the needle age on the species structure of the needle inhabiting fungal species was found. The phenotypic tree traits height and dbh (diameter at breast height) had only minor influence and did in fact explain less than 2% of the mycobiome variance. Using Illumina sequencing, 10.2 million reads from the nucleotide sequence between the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genes could be obtained, which yielded in 1575 ribotypes (called operational taxonomic unit, OTU) for the fungi. These were compared with a reference database to compare and assign them to known fungal species. For example, 942 OTUs with >95% similarity could be identified as known species, with 1975 samples identified on genus level and 2683 when determined to family level. The most pronounced difference between the two studies (article II and III) were due to the fungal species of the class of Pucciniomycetes, more specifically the genus Chrysomyxa which belongs to the rust fungi and is plant pathogenic. In the study of article II (sampling in 2012), Pucciniomycetes accounted for only a minor portion of the assigned DNA sequences. In the second study (article III, sampling in 2015) they accounted for more than half of all basidiomycetes found, which in turn contain 20.0% of all DNA sequences, the second largest phylum found beside Ascomycetes (51.4%).
Zusammenfassung
Der Iran besitzt zwölf UNESCO-Biosphärenreservate, die reich an einmaligen Natur- und Kulturschätzen und hohem menschlichen Potenzial aus verschiedenen ethnischen Gruppen sind. Die ersten neun Biosphärenreservate wurden frühzeitig mit den ersten Biosphärenreser-vaten der Welt im Jahr 1976 gegründet, die auch gleichzeitig andere Kategorien der Schutz-gebiete im Iran wie Nationalparks, geschützte Lebensräume für Wildtiere und Naturschutzge-biete beinhalten und bis heute unter ihrem alten Status verwaltet werden. Damit entsprechen sie nicht den aktuellen internationalen Anforderungen an Biosphärenreservate und besteht die Gefahr, dass diese Gebiete in baldiger Zukunft ihre natürlichen und kulturellen Werte verlie-ren und irreversibel beschädigt werden.
Diese Studie untersucht und bewertet die zwei exemplarisch ausgewählten iranischen Bio-sphärenreservate Golestan und Dena unter Berücksichtigung der UNESCO-Kriterien, unter anderem die Ziele und Grundlagen der Sevilla-Strategie und der Internationalen Leitlinien für das Weltnetz der Biosphärenreservate (1995). Das Biosphärenreservat Golestan wurde im Jahr 1976 gegründet und ist somit eines der ältesten Biosphärenreservate des Irans. Bei dem im Jahre 2010 gegründeten Biosphärenreservat Dena, handelt es sich um das jüngste Biosphä-renreservat im Iran zu Beginn der Studie.
Beide Schutzgebiete sind gebirgig und beinhalten die wichtigsten Waldökosysteme mit einer großen Biodiversität. Das Biosphärenreservat Golestan befindet sich im Nordosten des Irans im östlichsten Teil des Elburs-Gebirge und Dena liegt im zentralen Zagros-Gebirge im Westiran.
Für den methodischen Ansatz dieser Studie wurde ein Methodenmix aus qualitativen Elemen-ten: Oral History, Interviews, offenen Fragen und Teilnehmender Beobachtung und quantita-tiven Elementen: SWOT-Analyse (engl. Akronym für Strengths (Stärken), Weaknesses (Schwächen), Opportunities (Chancen) und Threats (Bedrohungen) und Auswertung der Fra-gebögen mit Hilfe des statistischen Programms SPSS20 angewendet.
Die untersuchten Gruppen bestanden gemäß der jeweiligen Analyse aus Experten des De-partments für Umwelt (DoE) in Teheran, den Provinz-Umweltschutzbehörden von Golestan und Kohgiluye und Boyer Ahmad, Akademikern, der Nationale Commission for UNESCO in Teheran, Zeitzeugen, lokaler Bevölkerung, Rangern, Umwelt-NGOs (engl. Non-Governmental Organization), dem Tourismus-Sektor und den Umwelt-Medien.
Die Ergebnisse in dieser Studie zeigen, dass die Entwicklung der iranischen Biosphärenreser-vate seit ihrer Gründung 1976 bis heute von den Veränderungen der wirtschaftlichen, politi-schen und gesellschaftlichen Situation des Irans und demzufolge von den Veränderungen in der Organisationsstruktur des Departemants für Umwelt (DoE) und der Prioritätensetzung in Bezug auf die Gesetze zu Umwelt- und Naturschutz beeinflusst wurden.
Überdies stellen die Ergebnisse dar, dass in den beiden untersuchten Biosphärenreservaten Golestan und Dena hinsichtlich der internationalen UNESCO-Kriterien und Richtlinien ver-gleichsweise ähnliche Defizite und Mängel bestehen:
• fehlende nationale Rechtsstruktur für die Biosphärenreservate im Iran,
• fehlender Managementplan für Biosphärenreservate und somit auch schwaches Mana-gementsystem der Biosphärenreservate,
• Mangel an Kenntnissen über Biosphärenreservate,
• beschränkte Beteiligung an den Angelegenheiten der Biosphärenreservate seitens aller untersuchten Gruppen – von der lokalen Bevölkerung bis hin zu den staatlichen Ent-scheidungsträgern und
• ungenügende Zusammenarbeit zwischen Staat und Interessengruppen in diesen Gebie-ten.
Ebenso wurde in dieser Studie versucht, konkrete Lösungsansätze zur Verwirklichung der Ziele der Biosphärenreservate bzw. der Verbesserung ihrer aktuellen Situation zu empfehlen.
In diesem Zusammenhang ist es erforderlich, dass Gesetze für die Biosphärenreservate auf nationaler Ebene definiert und die vorhandenen Biosphärenreservate im Iran gründlich nach internationalen Kriterien untersucht und mit einem systematischen Managementplan auf wis-senschaftlicher Grundlage verwaltet werden. Des Weiteren benötigen diese Gebiete für ihre Funktionalität eine Erhöhung und Verbesserung der Kenntnisse über die Biosphärenreservate der aktiven Personen, sowie der Kooperation und Kommunikation zwischen allen zuständigen Behörden und Interessengruppen. Hiermit soll allen sozialen, kulturellen, geistigen und wirt-schaftlichen Anliegen der Interessengruppen, vor allem aber der lokalen Bevölkerung, Rech-nung getragen werden, entsprechend dem weltweiten Ansatz der UNESCO-Biosphärenreservate.
Individual white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) growth limitations at treelines in Alaska
(2018)
White spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) is one of the most common conifers in Alaska and various treelines mark the species distribution range. Because treelines positions are driven by climate and because climate change is estimated to be strongest in northern latitudes, treeline shifts appear likely. However, species range shifts depend on various species parameters, probably most importantly on phenotypic plasticity, genetic adaptation
and dispersal. Due to their long generation cycles and their immobility, trees evolved to endure a wide variety of climatic conditions. In most locations, interannual climate variability is larger than the expected climate change until 2100. Thus treeline position is typically thought of as the integrated effect of multiple years and to lag behind gradual climate change by several decades. Past dendrochronological studies revealed that growth of white spruce in Alaska can be limited by several climatic variables, in particular water stress and low temperatures. Depending on how the intensity of climate warming, this could result in a leading range edge at treelines limited by low temperatures and trailing treelines where soil moisture is or becomes most limiting. Climate-growth correlations are the dendrochronological version of reaction norms and describe the relationship between an environmental variable and traits like tree-ring parameters (e.g. ring width, wood density, wood anatomy). These correlations can be used to explore potential effects of climate change on a target species. However, it is known that individuals differ with respect to multiple variables like size, age, microsite conditions, competition status or their genome. Such individual differences could be important because they can modulate climate-growth relationships and consequently also range shifts and growth trends. Removing individual differences by averaging tree-ring parameters of many individuals into site chronologies could be an oversimplification that might bias estimates of future white spruce performance. Population dynamics that emerge from the interactions of individuals (e.g. competition) and the range of reactions to the same environmental drivers can only be studied via individual tree analyses. Consequently, this thesis focuses on factors that might alter individual white spruce’ climate sensitivity and methods to assess such effects. In particular, the research articles included explore three topics:
1. First, clones were identified via microsatellites and high-frequency climate signals of clones were compared to that of non-clonal individuals. Clonal and non-clonal individuals showed similar high-frequency climate signals which allows to use clonal and non-clonal individuals to construct mean site chronologies. However, clones were more frequently found under the harsher environmental conditions at the treelines which could be of interest for the species survival strategy at alpine treelines and is further explored in the associated RESPONSE project A5 by David Würth.
2. In the second article, methods for the exploration and visualization of individual-tree differences in climate sensitivity are described. These methods represent a toolbox to explore causes for the variety of different climate sensitivities found in individual
trees at the same site. Though, overlaying gradients of multiple factors like temperature, tree density and/or tree height can make it difficult to attribute a single cause to the range of reaction norms (climate growth correlations).
3. Lastly, the third article attempts to disentangle the effect of age and size on climate-growth correlations. Multiple past studies found that trees of different Ages responded differently to climatic drivers. In contrast, other studies found that trees do not age like many other organisms. Age and size of a trees are roughly correlated, though there are large differences in the growth rate of trees, which can lead to smaller trees that are older than taller trees. Consequently, age is an imperfect Proxy for size and in contrast to age, size has been shown to affect wood anatomy and thus tree physiology. The article compares two tree-age methods and one tree-size method based on cumulative ring width. In line with previous research on aging and Wood anatomy, tree size appeared to be the best predictor to explain ontogenetic changes in white spruce’ climate sensitivity. In particular, tallest trees exhibited strongest correlations with water stress in previous year July. In conclusion, this thesis is about factors that can alter climate-growth relationships (reaction norms) of white spruce. The results emphasize that interactions between climate variables and other factors like tree size or competition status are important for estimates of future tree growth and potential treeline shifts. In line with previous studies on white spruce in Alaska, the results of this thesis underline the importance of water stress for white spruce.
Individuals that are taller and that have more competitors for water appear to be most susceptible to the potentially drier future climate in Alaska. While tree ring based growth trends estimates of white spruce are difficult to derive due to multiple overlaying low frequency (>10 years) signals, all investigated treeline sites showed highest growth at the treeline edge. This could indicate expanding range edges. However, a potential bottleneck for treeline advances and retreats could be seedling establishment, which should be explored in more detail in the future.
Dendrochronology, the science of tree-rings is a tool which has been widely used for many years for understanding changes in the environment, as trees react to environmental changes over time. In the contemporary situation, where climate warming in the Arctic is unequivocal and its effects on the Alpine and tundra ecosystems are seen pronouncedly in the past decade, the role of dendro-studies and the use of trees and shrubs alike as proxies of change has become critical. Studies clearly indicate that warming in the Arctic and Alpine tundra has resulted in increased vegetation in recent years. Shrubs, in these sensitive ecosystems, have proven to be highly instrumental as they likely benefit from this warming and hence are good indicators and auditees of this change. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the potential of shrubs in the evolving field of dendro-ecology/climatology.
Studies from classical dendrochronology used annual rings from trees. Further, because of shrub sensitivity to contemporary change, shrub-based dendrochronological research has increased at a notable scale in the last decade and will likely continue. This is because shrubs grow even beyond the tree line and promise environmental records from areas where tree growth is very limited or absent. However, a common limitation noted by most shrub studies is the very hard cross-dating due to asynchronous growth patterns. This limitation poses a major hurdle in shrub-based dendrochronological studies, as it renders weak detection of common signals in growth patterns in population stands. This common signal is traced by using a ‘site-chronology’.
In this dissertation, I studied shrub growth through various resolutions, starting from understanding radial growth within individuals along the length of the stem, to comparison of radial growth responses among male and female shrubs, to comparing growth responses among trees and shrubs to investigation of biome-wide functional trait responses to current warming. Apart from Chapter 4 and Chapter 6, I largely used Juniperus communis sp. for investigations as it is the most widely distributed woody dioecious species often used in dendro-ecological investigations in the Northern Hemisphere.
Primarily, we investigated radial growth patterns within shrubs to better understand growth within individuals by comparing different stem-disks from different stem heights within individuals. We found significant differences in radial growth from different stem-disks with respect to stem heights from same individuals. Furthermore, we found that these differences depending on the choice of the stem-disk affect the resulting site-chronology and hence climate-sensitivity to a substantial extent and that the choice of a stem-disk is a crucial precursor which affects climate-growth relationships.
Secondly, we investigated if gender difference – often reported causing differential radial growth in dioecious trees – is an influential factor for heterogeneous growth. We found that at least in case of Juniperus communis. L and Juniperus communis ssp nana. WILLD there is no substantial gender biased difference in radial growth which might affect the site-chronology. We did find moderate differences between sexes in an overall analysis and attribute this to reproductive effort in females.
In our study to test the potential of shrubs for reconstruction, we used a test case of Alnus viridis ssp crispa. We found a strong correlation between ring-width indices and summer temperature. Initially, the model failed the stability tests when we tested the stability of this relation using a response function model. However, using wood-anatomical analysis we discovered that this was because of abnormal cell-wall formation resulting in very thin rings in the year 2004. Pointer year analysis revealed that the thin rings were caused because of a moth larval outbreak and when corrected for these rings the model passed all stability tests.
Furthermore, to see if trees and shrubs growing in same biomes react to environmental changes similarly, a network analysis with sites ranging from the Mediterranean biome to the Ural Mountains in Russia was carried out. We found that shrubs react better to the current climate warming and have a decoupled divergent temperature response as compared to coexisting trees. This outcome reiterated the importance of shrub studies in relation to contemporary climate change. Even though trees and shrubs are woody forms producing annual rings, they have very different growth patterns and need different methods for analysis and data treatment.
Finally, in a domain-wide network analysis from plant-community vegetation survey, we investigated functional relationships between plant traits (leaf area, plant height, leaf nitrogen content, specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf dry matter content (LDMC)) and abiotic factors viz. temperature and soil moisture. We found a strong relation between summer temperature and community height, SLA and LDMC on a spatial scale. Contrarily, the temporal-analysis revealed SLA and LDMC lagged and did not respond to temperature over the last decade. We realized that there are complex interactions between intra-specific and inter-specific plant traits which differ spatially and temporally impacting Arctic ecosystems in terms of carbon turn over, surface albedo, water balance and heat-energy fluxes. We found that ecosystem functions in the Arctic are closely linked with plant height and will be indicative of warming in the short term future becoming key factors in modelling ecosystem projections.
Myxomycetes are protists belonging to the super-group Amoebozoa. The traditional taxonomic system, which is now largely outdated by molecular studies, recognizes five orders: Liceales, Trichiales, Physarales, Stemonitales and Echinosteliales. Molecular phylogenies revealed two basal clades: Physarales and Stemonitales (the so-called dark-spored myxomycetes) are the first; the other above-mentioned orders form the second (the bright-spored myxomycetes). However, except for Echinosteliales none of the traditional orders appears to be monophyletic in the traditionally used delimitation. The dark-spored myxomycetes encompass the majority of the described morphospecies. Due to the high genetic divergence in DNA sequences between the bright- and dark-spored myxomycetes, only the latter are considered in this dissertation. Historically myxomycetes have been described as fungi, due to their macroscopically visible fructifications which, though considerably smaller, resemble those of fungi. These fruit bodies provide enough morphological traits to support a morphological species concept with currently ca. 1000 species described. Therefore diversity studies of myxomycetes have been conducted for over 200 years and a substantial body of data on ecology and distribution of these fructifications exist. From these studies myxomycetes are known to form often distinct communities across terrestrial ecosystems with highly specific habitat requirements, such as snowbanks (nivicolous), herbivore dung (coprophilous) or decaying wood (xylophilous). However knowledge on the myxamoebae – the trophic life stage of the myxomycetes – is very scarce. Only recent advances in molecular techniques such as direct species identification based on DNA sequences from environmental samples (ePCR), have made studies of myxamoebae (and other microbes) possible. From these first molecular based studies myxomycetes are currently estimated to account for between 5 to almost 50% of all soil amoebae, and have been shown to be present in a wide variety of soils. To fully take advantage of these new methods, a molecular DNA marker needs to be established as well as a reference sequence database. The usability of a DNA marker gene depends on its ability to separate species by a distinction between intra- and interspecific divergence between sequences of the same and related species, the so-called ‘barcoding gap’.
The first part of this thesis (article I and II) deals with the subject of establishing such a DNA marker and database, and in doing so touches upon the subject of ‘what is a myxomycetes species?’
A total of 1 200 specimens were compiled into a reference database (the largest database to date of dark-spored myxomycetes). The genetic distance from sequence-to-sequence was used to assess genetic clade structures within morphospecies and putative biospecies (sexually isolated linages) were identified. The result was an estimate of hidden diversity, exceeding that of described morphospecies by 99%. The optimum sequence similarity threshold for OTU-picking (genetic species differentiation, denoted Operational Taxonomic Unit) with the used SSU marker was identified as 99.1% similarity.
The second part of this thesis (article III and IV) presents ecological studies conducted with NGS (ePCR) in which the established threshold and database are applied and are demonstrated to provide reliable and novel insights into the soil myxamoebae community. It is investigated whether the occurrence of fruit bodies reflects the distribution of soil myxamoebae, and the research questions ‘do myxomycetes show broader realized niches as soil amoebae than as fructifications?’ and ‘are myxamoebae distributions correlated to potential prey organisms (fungi and bacteria)?’ are investigated.
In the ecological study presented in article III parallel metabarcoding of bacteria, fungi and dark-spored myxomycete was used for the first time in a joint approach to analyze the communities from an elevational transect in the northern limestone German Alps (48 soil samples). Illumina sequencing of the soil samples revealed 1.68 Mio sequences of a section of the rRNA gene, which were assigned to 578 operational taxonomic units (OTU) from myxomycetes. These show a high similarity (>98%) to 42 different morphospecies (the respective figures for bacteria and fungi were 2.16/5710/215 and 3.68/6133/260, respectively). Multivariate analyses were carried out to disentangle microbial interplay and to identify the main environmental parameters determining the distribution of myxamoebae and thus setting the boundaries for their ecological niches. Potential interactions between the three target organisms were analysed by integrating community composition and phylogenetic diversity with environmental parameters. We identified niche differentiation for all three communities (bacteria, fungi and myxamoebae) which was strongly driven by the vegetation. Bacteria and fungi displayed similar community responses, driven by symbiont species and plant substrate quality. Myxamoebae showed a more patchy distribution, though still clearly stratified among genera, which seemed to be a response to both structural properties of the habitat and specific bacterial taxa. In addition we find an altitudinal species turn-over for all three communities, most likely explained by adaptation to harsh environmental conditions. Finally a high number of myxomycetes OTUs (associated with the genus Lamproderma) not currently represented in our reference database were found, representing potentially novel species. This study is the first to report niche differentiation between the guild of nivicolous (“snowbank”) myxomycetes and thus fine-scale niche differentiation among a predatory soil protist; identifying both potential food preferences and antagonistic interactions with specific bacterial taxa.
Finally, the second ecological study (article IV) focuses on comparing the distribution of myxamoebae revealed by ePCR of soil samples with fructifications collected from the same area (714 specimens determined to 30 morphospecies, which form 70 unique ribotypes that can be assigned to 45 ribotype clusters using a 99.1% similarity threshold). The study found a strong coherency between the two inventories, though with species specific relative differences in abundance, which can in part be attributed to the visibility of the fructifications. In addition, a year to year comparison of fructification records gives support to the hypothesis that the abundance of fructifications depends strongly on the onset of snowfall in the previous autumn and the soil temperature regime throughout the winter.
Because Moringa is rich in secondary metabolites and phenolics, we faced a challenge in extracting a pure DNA required for AFLP (the first proposed genotyping method). Later, different DNA isolation methods were tested to overcome the obstacles caused by phenolics and sugars, an AFLP protocol that worked well with the cultivated seedlings at the botanical garden in Greifswald. The markers for the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) were as well tested that showed a monomorphic structure between all samples. Finally, SSR (microsatellite) markers were established. To optimize DNA extraction, the method of Doyle and Doyle was modified and optimized. This is an ideal method for obtaining a non-fragmented DNA that could be used for AFLP. In addition, two other DNA extraction methods; (KingFisher Flex robot using Omega M1130 extraction Kits, and spin columns and 96-plates using Stratec kits). Although we achieved similar results for both Robot kits (Omega) and Stratec kits, the amplification for most of the samples extracted with Robot did not work, therefore the Stratec kit was the method of choice as it has also a lower cost, combined with a high quality of DNA. For ITS, no polymorphism was found for 28 samples of M. peregrina from Sinai (sequences submitted to GenBank). However, since microsatellite markers of M. peregrina were not known, it was a challenge to try a cross amplification from other species with well-known microsatellite primers. Cross-amplification of 16 primers known from the related species M. oleifera was tested, and three multiplex PCR reactions were established after testing different annealing temperatures and different primers concentrations. This included 13 primers out of the 16 investigated markers which gave a reliable band. All methods used for genetic assessments for the different Moringa species are compiled in a comparative review to look for connections between the different Moringa species. For Moringaceae, M. oleifera and M. peregrina are closely related to each other. Both species have slender trunks, with thick, tough bark and tough roots and bilaterally symmetrical flowers with a short hypanthium. All but one SSR markers used in this study are highly informative However, the degree of polymorphy varied considerably within the 13 markers used. The Probability of Identity (PI) for all loci was 2.6 x 10-9 with high resolution. The percentage of polymorphic loci for all populations was 88.5±2.2; figures for single populations were 92.3%, 84.6%, 84.6%, and 92.3% for the wadis WM, WA, WF, and WZ, respectively. The genotype accumulation curve as well demonstrated that 7–8 markers were necessary to discriminate between 100% of the multilocus genotypes. Significant departures from HWE were detected for eight loci (P < 0.001), probably due a high degree of inbreeding within population. The observed (HO) and expected (HE) heterozygosities ranged from 0 to 0.86 and from 0 to 0.81, respectively. However, for the pooled population, excluding the monomorphic locus MO41, HO and HE ranged from 0.069 to 0.742 and from 0.126 to 0.73 with averages of 0.423 and 0.469, respectively. The mean of FST was 0.133, indicating that, due to the long generation time of M. peregrina, there is still relatively little differentiation between the four remaining populations. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that the old populations of M. peregrina are still genetically diverse where 75% of variance was recorded within individuals and 83% within populations. An analysis with STRUCTURE, varying the parameter K between 1 and 7, revealed the most pronounced genetic structure for K=3, thus uniting the populations from two neighboured wadis (W. Agala and W. Feiran). The three groups seem to be now genetically isolated. (They may be remainders of a formerly contiguous population, especially when considering the change towards a drier climate in Northern Africa within the last 6000 years). Six clones of each two individuals collected from the same wadi were found, pointing to vegetative dispersal via broken twigs, which may have rooted after flash floods. It may be an alternative mode of reproduction under harsh conditions. Our data reveal a low gene flow between three of the four wadis, suggesting that the trees are relictual populations. In general, conservation of populations from the three genetically most diverse wadis and cross-breeding of trees within a reforestation program is recommended as an effective strategy to ensure the survival of M. peregrina at Sinai, Egypt.
Die mitteleuropäischen Flachbärlappe (Gattung Diphasiastrum) sind in Deutschland alle hochgradig gefährdet und können ohne geeignete Artenhilfsmaßnahmen hier nicht dauerhaft überleben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Grundlagen für ein Artenhilfsprogramm geschaffen, indem die Reproduktionsbiologie untersucht worden ist und die ökologischen Ansprüche und Gefährdungsursachen ermittelt wurden, um entsprechende Hilfsmaßnahmen für die Arten zu entwickeln.
Um Rückschlüsse auf das Reproduktionssystem der Eltern- und Hybridarten zu erhalten, wurde die genetische Diversität ermittelt. Dabei kam das fingerprinting-Verfahren AFLP zum Einsatz, womit Arten und genetisch verschiedene Individuen voneinander abgegrenzt werden können. Verwendet wurden die beiden Primer-Kombinationen EcoRI-AAG / VspI-CT und EcoRI-ACT / VspI-CAG. Die größte genetische Diversität der Elternarten weist D. complanatum auf, die überwiegend durch echte Fremdbefruchtung (outcrossing) entsteht, während die genetische Diversität der beiden anderen Elternarten D. alpinum und D. tristachyum gering ist und nur knapp oberhalb einer definierten Fehlerrate liegt. Die Proben der Hybridarten unterscheiden sich so stark voneinander, dass davon ausgegangen werden muss, dass dies immer wieder neu entstehende F1-Hybriden sind, wenngleich die Unterschiede bei D. oellgaardii vergleichsweise gering aufgrund der geringen genetischen Diversität der Elternarten D. alpinum und D. tristachyum ist.
Die Sporenproduktion in den Sporenständen wurde unter anderem direkt durch Zählung von Sporen in den Sporangien unterm Stereomikroskop und Zählung der Sporangien in den Sporenständen ermittelt. Sporangien von L. clavatum enthalten demnach 27735 (± 7492) Sporen pro Sporangium, 105,2 (± 3,7) Sporangien pro Sporenstand und hochgerechnet etwa 2,1 bis 3,8 Millionen Sporen pro Sporenstand.
Die terminale Fallgeschwindigkeit liegt für L. clavatum bei 2,16 (± 0,11) cm*s-1 und für D. complanatum bei 2,25 (± 0,10) cm*s-1. Die Sporen haben einen Durchmesser von 29,5 (± 2,0) μm bzw. 32,3 (± 2,5) μm. Die gemessene Geschwindigkeit liegt deutlich unter der theoretischen und lässt sich damit erklären, da Sporen keine perfekten Kugeln sind und aufgrund ihrer stark reliefierten Oberfläche Turbulenzen erzeugt werden, die den Fall verlangsamen.
Die Anzahl der in Entfernungen bis 200 m zu einer sporenbildenden Population fliegenden Sporen wurde mithilfe von vertikalen klebenden Sporenfallen bei D. complanatum, D. tristachyum und L. clavatum bestimmt. Nur für die Population von L. clavatum mit 11358 reifen Sporenständen auf kleiner Fläche wurden weitere Berechnungen durchgeführt. Folgende Funktion beschreibt die Anzahl der durch die Luft fliegenden Sporen in einer Höhe von etwa 40 cm über dem Boden in Abhängigkeit zur Entfernung x: f(x) = 45878*x-2,302 (R² = 0,9979). Es konnten selbst in 200 m Entfernung noch einzelne Sporen an den Sporenfallen nachgewiesen werden. Da die maximale theoretische Ausbreitungsdistanz bei nur knapp 130 m liegt, selbst wenn ein konstant horizontal wehender Wind von 100 km/h angenommen wird, müssen aufwärtsgerichtete Luftströmungen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Fernausbreitung spielen.
Die Ansiedlungsversuche wurden im Thüringer Schiefergebirge am Grünen Band bei Brennersgrün (D. alpinum und D. tristachyum) und im Pöllwitzer Wald (D. complanatum) durchgeführt. Als Vergleichsart wurde wieder L. clavatum verwendet. Die Sprossverpflanzungen verliefen insgesamt erfolgreich mit einer Überlebensrate von 8% für D. alpinum, 17% für D. complanatum, 8% für D. tristachyum und 22% für L. clavatum. Der jährliche Rhizomzuwachs liegt bei 0,5 cm, 13,3 (± 1,8) cm, 7,5 cm bzw. 9,1 (± 4,0) cm für die entsprechenden Arten.
Die Vegetationsbedeckung vorher abgeplaggter Flächen liegt zwischen 39 und 53% nach zwei Jahren, jedoch mit großen Unterschieden selbst zwischen benachbarten Flächen und wird hauptsächlich durch ein schnelles Mooswachstum bestimmt.
Nach etwa fünf Monaten sind keine Sporen auf sterilem Nährstoffmedium gekeimt, obwohl diese unterschiedlich behandelt wurden, zum Beispiel mit Rauchgas, Hitze, konzentrierter Schwefelsäure oder durch Mörsern. Auch die Keimungsversuche an den Wuchsorten waren nach 2,5 Jahren erfolglos. Eine Erklärung kann ein Dormanzstadium unbekannter Dauer vor der Keimung sein.
Der Anzahl der jährlich gebildeten vertikalen Sprossbüschel wurde indirekt für je eine Population für D. zeilleri (2,5/Jahr) und D. issleri (2,0/Jahr) bestimmt, indem der Quotient aus der Anzahl der Sprossbüschel an der längsten Rhizomverbindung und dem bekannten Alter des Standorts ermittelt worden ist. Die Zugehörigkeit von Rhizomstücken zu einem Klon wurde mit der AFLP-Methode abgesichert. Die meisten Populationen in Deutschland werden demnach mehrere Jahrzehnte alt, jedoch ohne beobachtete Verjüngung über Prothallien. Eine Erklärung könnten die immer noch sehr geringen pH-Werte in den Unterböden von 3,6 (± 0,24) sein, die giftige Al3+-Ionen pflanzenverfügbar machen.
The “East German National Park Programme” of 1989/1990 was considered a coup de main, resulting in the immediate protection of 4.5% of the GDR’s territory. The authors of this programme later described the approach and its success as “using a window of opportunity during the transition phase of state and nation.” This leads to the question whether a state’s transformation period constitutes a preferred time frame and momentum for spatial conservation success.
Conservation efforts in Azerbaijan showed a similar success as the East German National Park Programme. In a country with the highest biodiversity in Europe, increasing the share of protected land from 5.0 % in 2001 to 10.3% in 2015 constitutes a remarkable achievement. Thus, the country became an interesting case study regarding the question whether “hot moments for conservation” exist in times of political and governmental changes, and if spatial success in nature conservation can be linked to political transformation. This thesis attempts to identify how the protected area (PA) network in Azerbaijan could be expanded by 100%, what achievements were made, and what conditions still need to be met for the quantitative and qualitative improvement of the PA network. To this end, I consider this increase under landscape-ecological, historical and institutional aspects. The local culture and political pre-sets in the country present additional issues for analysing the past 25 years of nature conservation in Azerbaijan.
Leaf-inhabiting fungi are a hyperdiverse group of microbiota found in all terrestrial habitats. Comparative studies targeting the drivers of endophytic fungal biodiversity are rare and identified multiple effectors, such as plant chemistry, climate and seasonal attributes. Our project aimed to study the pattern of the leaf-associated mycobiome of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) at altitudinally distinct sites to reveal diversity, composition and seasonal dynamics of fungal endophytes by a combination of metabarcoding, cultivation and subsequent ecological analyses. This thesis also intended to study the fungal relationship with biotic and abiotic factors: elevation, local site conditions, leaf biochemistry and leaf status. Metabarcoding and cultivation were applied for same leaf samples to trace both environmental drivers and method-dependent signals of the detected fungi. An experimental field site consisting of 100 (2-years old beech) trees was established called ‘beech phytometer’ system at two altitudes (517 and 975 m a.s.l.) in a German mountain forest. Beech trees were randomly selected from both sites as well as from neighboring beech trees. Ten trees from each site were chosen and 10 leaves per tree were sampled. Climatic and leaf biochemistry (Chlorophyll, flavonoid and nitrogen) data were seasonally (Autumn, Spring and Summer) investigated for two continuous years (Oct 2013 to Oct 2015) at these two elevations. In the first year (autumn, 2013) of the project (chapter 3.1), the leaf-inhabiting fungi of natural beech trees were investigated by using high-throughput sequencing (metabarcoding) at three altitudinally distinct sites (with timberline at 1381 m a.s.l.) in the German Alps. This paper focuses on a detailed description and evaluation of metabarcoding amplicon library preparation and a subsequent analytical workflow. Fungal diversity and community composition were compared as a function of different elevated sites and leaf status (i.e., vital or senescent). However, three investigation sites resulted in 969 OTUs (operational taxonomic units) from 820441 sequences. Taxonomic compositions (order) of beech fungi differed strongly among the three sites but were less distinct between the vital and the senescence leaves. Fungal community composition at valley site clearly differed from those of mountain and timberline where differences between mountain and timberline were less prominent. Vital and senescence leaf differed in fungal community structures indicating a strong dynamics of leaf fungi in autumn. Elevation and leaf status were found to be the main explaining factors, which affected the fungal richness and compositions. Another survey (Chapter 3.2) was conducted just after the establishment of the ‘beech phytometer’ trees in the same period (autumn 2013) where leaf mycobiome of the phytometer trees (trees originally came from Northern Germany and grown in nursery) were compared with the fungi of surrounding natural beech habitat at valley (517 m a.s.l.) and mountain site (975 m a.s.l.) in the same location “Untersberg”. Fungal diversity was lowest in the managed habitat in the nursery and was highest in natural habitat. Fungal diversity and compositions significantly associated the origin of the trees. Under natural conditions, the fungi were more diverse at lower altitudes than at higher altitudes. Additionally, leaf chlorophyll and flavonoid contents showed negative correlations with fungal richness in natural stands. In the second year (autumn 2014), another survey (chapter 3.3) was conducted on leaf endophytes of phytometer trees with metabarcoding and cultivation approaches to trace the environmental drivers and method-dependent indications. Metabarcoding resulted in 597 OTUs from 170480 curated ITS1 reads and cultivation revealed 70 OTUs from 438 culture-based Sanger sequences. Both approaches resulted in non-overlapping community compositions and pronounced differences in taxonomic classification and trophic stages. However, both methods revealed similar correlations of the fungal communities with local environmental conditions. Our results indicate undisputable advantages of metabarcoding over cultivation in terms of representation of the major functional guilds, rare taxa and diversity signals of leaf-inhabiting fungi. This stressed out the importance of cultivation for complementing sequence databases with good quality reference data and encouraged the use of both approaches in future microbial biodiversity assessment studies. Phytometer and natural trees were intensively investigated in this study (chapter 3.4) to assess the influence of site characteristics (altitudes, local microclimate), seasonality, leaf biochemistry and leaf age on fungal diversity and composition. In total, our analytical Illumina workflow resulted in 15703599 demultiplexed and ITS1 reads from 165 samples. Clustering at 97% similarity resulted in 1199 OTUs. Climatic parameters were significantly differed between valley and mountain on daily basis but were insignificantly differed on monthly basis. The compositional difference between phytometer and natural mycobiome was significant for combined data as well as for the seasonal data (Oct 2013-Oct 2014). We observed a strong seasonal turnover in phyllosphere fungi in both habitats over the two years of investigation, suggesting that the plant-fungal system not only responds to cyclic climatic conditions but depends as well on various parameters, e.g., geographic position, substrates age and surrounding vegetation. A side (chapter 3.5) study was done to see the connection between the foliar endophytes and foliar phenolic compounds of European aspen (Populus tremula) in the presence and absence of specialist beetles (Chrysomela tremula). A distinct pattern of the leaf endophytes was found to be associated with aspen genotype and chemotype, but this specificity disappeared in the presence of herbivorous beetles. This suggested that leaf endophytes responded to the herbivory in aspen. In general, the altitudinal difference is the most important explaining factor for fungal community differences, which shapes many dependent abiotic and biotic habitat factors. Regarding cost and time per sequence, metabarcoding is superior to cultivation approaches and offers surprisingly profound insights by yielding much more data, allowing to test at once multiple hypotheses in fungal ecology.