Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (158)
- Article (121)
Has Fulltext
- yes (279)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (279)
Keywords
- - (72)
- Biokatalyse (24)
- biocatalysis (19)
- Proteindesign (16)
- Enzym (14)
- Biocatalysis (10)
- Biotechnologie (8)
- RNA (8)
- Biochemie (7)
- Ribozym (7)
Institute
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie (279) (remove)
Publisher
- Wiley (39)
- MDPI (29)
- Frontiers Media S.A. (13)
- Springer Nature (11)
- John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (7)
- John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (3)
- Nature Publishing Group (2)
- Oxford University Press (2)
- BioMed Central (BMC) (1)
- Blackwell Publishing Ltd (1)
Impact of proteostasis and the ubiquitin proteasome system on myeloid cell function in the CNS
(2023)
Cellular protein homeostasis (proteostasis) maintains a functional proteome and thus proper cell function. Proteostasis is facilitated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), an intracellular protein turnover machinery ensuring clearance of damaged, misfolded, old and/or unneeded regulatory proteins. This is particularly important in the central nervous system (CNS), where it is linked to neurodegeneration. Disruptions of the proteostasis systems cause the accumulation of misfolded proteins which are commonly seen in progressive neurodegenerative diseases also linked to neuroinflammation. Proper UPS function can protect cells from the accumulation of defective proteins, neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Furthermore, it has been found that loss of function mutations in the genes encoding UPS components are linked to systemic inflammation including neuroinflammation and/or neurodevelopmental disorders. Proteasome defects in patients suffering from these disorders cause decreased proteasome activity, accumulation of proteins, activation of proteotoxic stress responses and systemic inflammation. However, the molecular link between proteotoxic stress and the initiation of inflammatory signalling remained unclear. In Article 2, we summarized the importance of the UPS in immune cell proteostasis and function including activation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Although UPS function is notably important in innate immune signalling, the current understanding of the role of UPS in myeloid cell function in the CNS is limited. We also indicated the involvement of impaired UPS function in sterile systemic inflammation including neuroinflammation as well as tumour diseases and pathogen manipulation of immune cells.
To investigate the molecular link behind proteasome impairment and systemic inflammation in the brain, we focused on microglia cells as the only immune residents of the CNS. In Article 1, we used a pharmacological inhibitor called bortezomib which targets β5 and β5i/LMP7 subunit activities in standard proteasome (SP) and immunoproteasome (IP), respectively. We showed for the first time on the molecular level that inhibition of proteasome activity by bortezomib triggers the accumulation of ubiquitylated proteins, proteotoxic stress responses and innate immune signalling activation depending on the induced proteotoxic stress response called unfolded protein response (UPR) in murine microglia. In particular, activation of the inositol-requiring protein 1α arm of UPR upon bortezomib treatment leads to systemic inflammation as indicated by type I interferon (IFN) response.
IP enhance the proteolytic capacity of UPS by rapid clearance of proteins upon immune signalling activation. Microglia, like other immune cells, exhibit constitutive expression of IP as well as SP to maintain their cellular proteostasis. In Manuscript 3, we studied the particular impact of IP impairment on microglial cellular function. We showed accumulation of ubiquitin-modified proteins and activation of proteotoxic stress responses in IP-impaired mouse and human microglia models. Moreover, we identified possible IP substrates in microglia using β5i/LMP7 knockout mice as an IP deficiency model and, examined how IP deficiency affects microglia function. IP deficient microglia affected the ubiquitylation levels of proteins involved in multiple pathways such as immune responses, energy metabolism, cytoskeleton organisation, cell cycle and ribosome function. Based on the molecular analysis, we confirmed sterile activation of innate immune signalling mechanisms in IP impaired microglia. This is driven by the proteotoxic stress sensor protein kinase R (PKR). In addition, we were able to show that IP impairment altered levels of the microglial activation markers, which are also involved in motility, adhesion and phagocytosis of microglia.
In this thesis, we highlight that UPS function is necessary to maintain microglial proteostasis and, that impairment of proteasome activities triggers sterile inflammation in microglia via activation of proteotoxic stress responses. The described activation of innate immune signalling mechanisms in microglia upon proteasome impairment may be considered as new therapeutic targets for patients suffering from rare protesomapathies or other disorders linked to dysregulated immune signalling.
Der Replikationszyklus der Herpesviren ist sehr komplex und im Detail unzureichend verstanden. Die Funktionen und Eigenschaften einiger viraler Proteine sind bisher kaum charakterisiert. Folglich gibt es wenige Strukturmodelle dieser Proteine, wodurch beispielsweise eine rationale Medikamentenentwicklung kaum möglich war. Die Zielstellung dieser Arbeit war, neun dieser Proteine (pUL4, -7, -11, -16, -21, -26, -26.5, -32 und -33) aus dem pseudorabies virus (PrV) zu charakterisieren und nach Möglichkeit deren Struktur aufzuklären. Hierzu wurden die zur Verfügung gestellten Gensequenzen in geeignete bakterielle Expressionsvektoren umkloniert und in E. coli exprimiert. Lösliche Proteine wurden gereinigt und anschließend Kristallisationsexperimenten unterzogen, während unlösliche Proteine zum Teil auf ihre Renaturierbarkeit getestet wurden. Die Strukturen des kristallisierten N-terminalen Teils von pUL26 (Assemblin) wurden mittels Röntgenkristallographie aufgeklärt. Außerdem wurden alle Proteine in silico auf Signalsequenzen, Phosphorylierungen und Sequenzmuster untersucht. Von der N-terminalen Serinproteasedomäne (Assemblin) von pUL26 wurden drei Strukturen durch Röntgenkristallographie bestimmt: eine native dimere, eine inhibierte dimere, sowie eine native monomere Struktur. Letztere ist das erste bekannte Strukturmodell der monomeren Form eines Assemblins. In Verbindung mit den dimeren Strukturen konnte experimentell bestätigt werden, dass die Aktivierung der Assembline über die Verschiebung eines loop bei der Dimerisierung erfolgt. Die Umlagerung dieses loop basiert darauf, dass sich der in der monomeren Form teilweise flexible Dimerisierungsbereich durch die Dimerisierung etwas verändert und eine weitestgehend starre Konformation einnimmt. Die Helix α8 wird etwas verkürzt und die Helix α7 etwas verlängert und begradigt, wodurch sich der Oxyanionenloch-Loop vom Dimerisierungsbereich entfernt und ein ausgedehntes Wasserstoffbrückenbindungsnetzwerk aufbaut. In dieser Konformation stabilisiert der loop das Oxyanionenloch, wodurch die Protease aktiviert wird. Weiterhin wurde durch small-angle X-ray scattering bestätigt, dass der Dimerisierungsgrad von der Assemblin- und Mg²+;-Ionenkonzentration abhängig ist. Diese Informationen zur Dimerisierung des PrV-Assemblins können dazu beitragen, rationale Medikamentenentwicklung zu betreiben. Daraus resultierende Wirkstoffe können die Dimerisierung und somit die Aktivierung dieses Schlüsselproteins verhindern. Durch die hohe Ähnlichkeit der Assembline in anderen Herpesviren, kann die nun bekannte monomere Struktur des PrV-Assemblins als Modell für die monomere Struktur anderer, zum Teil humanpathogener Herpesviren genutzt werden. Demzufolge könnte dieses Modell auch die Entwicklung von Medikamenten beispielsweise gegen das Epstein-Barr virus oder das herpes simplex virus 1 ermöglichen. Es stellte sich zudem heraus, dass die bisher für das PrV-pUL26 bzw. -pUL26.5 vorhergesagte zweite Assemblinschnittstelle (M-site) vermutlich nicht korrekt ist. Es wurde eine andere M-site vorgeschlagen, welche ebenfalls infrage kommt. Eine Charakterisierung in vitro war bei fünf der neun zu untersuchenden Proteine möglich. Die anderen vier Proteine (pUL7, -16, -21 und -32) konnten aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht erfolgreich exprimiert werden. Die Proteine pUL4, pUL26.5 und pUL33 wurden unlöslich exprimiert, wobei pUL33 renaturiert werden konnte. Der Membrananker pUL11 und die N-terminale Serinproteasedomäne von pUL26 konnten löslich exprimiert werden. Untersuchungen in silico ergaben, dass der Membrananker pUL11 aus dem pseudorabies virus wahrscheinlich ein nukleäres Exportsignal trägt, was bisher nicht bekannt war. Es ist zudem wahrscheinlich, dass pUL11 selbst keine definierte Struktur hat, da es mit 63 Aminosäuren ein sehr kleines Protein ist und über Sequenzmuster mit anderen Proteinen interagiert.
Oils and fats from natural origin are sustainable sources for a broad range of economically relevant products in food, feed, fuel, oleochemical, and cosmetic industries. Thereby, a huge variety of lipids or lipid-derived products exist which distinguish themselves by their unique physical properties making them suitable for their individual applications. To obtain such functional lipids in an environmentally friendly manner, enzymes can be employed. In that context, lipases have been proven to be valuable biocatalysts in lipid modification, which are broadly applied in industry. Even though they have been implemented successfully in the dairy, baking, and detergent industries, there is an increasing demand for the expansion of their utilization. New technologies like protein engineering and the implementation of process development are employed in solving this task. Within the enzymes in lipid modification, lipases are the most applied catalysts and in this thesis their utilization was expanded successfully to the implementation of novel separation processes and the production of improved drug delivery matrices.
The pore forming alpha-toxin (hemolysin A, Hla) of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major virulence factor with relevance for the pathogenicity of this bacterium, which is involved in many cases of pneumonia and sepsis in humans. Until now, the presence of Hla in the body fluids of potentially infected humans could only be shown indirectly, e.g., by the presence of antibodies against Hla in serum samples or by hemolysis testing on blood agar plates of bacterial culture supernatants of the clinical isolates. In addition, nothing was known about the concentrations of Hla actually reached in the body fluids of the infected hosts. Western blot analyses on 36 samples of deep tracheal aspirates (DTA) isolated from 22 hospitalized sepsis patients using primary antibodies against different epitopes of the Hla molecule resulted in the identification of six samples from five patients containing monomeric Hla (approx. 33 kDa). Two of these samples showed also signals at the molecular mass of heptameric Hla (232 kDa). Semiquantitative analyses of the samples revealed that the concentrations of monomeric Hla ranged from 16 to 3200 ng/mL. This is, to our knowledge, the first study directly showing the presence of S. aureus Hla in samples of airway surface liquid in human patients.
The vast majority of RNA splicing in today‘s organisms is achieved by the highly regulated and precise removal of introns from pre-mRNAs via the spliceosome. Here we present a model of how RNA splicing may have occurred in earlier life forms. We have designed a hairpin ribozyme derived spliceozyme that mediates two RNA cleavages and one ligation event at specific positions and thus cuts a segment (intron) out of a parent RNA and ligates the remaining fragments (exons). The cut-out intron then performs a downstream function, acting as a positive regulator of the activity of a bipartite DNAzyme. This simple scenario shows how small RNAs can perform complex RNA processing dynamics, involving the generation of new phenotypes by restructuring segments of given RNA species, as well as delivering small RNAs that may play a functional role in downstream processes.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a mass-produced petroleum-based non-biodegradable plastic that contributes to the global plastic pollution. Recently, biocatalytic degradation has emerged as a viable recycling approach for PET waste, especially with thermophilic polyester hydrolases such as a cutinase (LCC) isolated from a leaf-branch compost metagenome and its variants. To improve the enzymatic PET hydrolysis performance, we fused a chitin-binding domain (ChBD) from Chitinolyticbacter meiyuanensis SYBC-H1 to the C-terminus of the previously reported LCCICCG variant, demonstrating higher adsorption to PET substrates and, as a result, improved degradation performance by up to 19.6% compared to with its precursor enzyme without the binding module. For compare hydrolysis with different binding module, the catalytic activity of LCCICCG-ChBD, LCCICCG-CBM, LCCICCG-PBM and LCCICCG-HFB4 were further investigated with PET substrates of various crystallinity and it showed measurable activity on high crystalline PET with 40% crystallinity. These results indicated that fusing a polymer-binding module to LCCICCG is a promising method stimulating the enzymatic hydrolysis of PET.
Ribozymes for Aminoacylation
(2012)
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRS) are at the heart of modern translation, catalyzing the accurate biosynthesis of aminoacyl-tRNAs. According to the RNA world hypothesis, the early translation system should have aminoacylation ribozymes for RNA aminoacylation. For this, an aaRS ribozyme system, consisting of the KK13 ribozyme and the C3a ribozyme was successfully designed, which can perform both amino acid activation and aminoacyl transfer reaction. Generation of such aminoacylation ribozyme system would fill up the gap between the RNA world and the modern biological world. In addition, two types of diversified aminoacylation ribozymes, symmetrical ribozymes and self-assembling ribozymes were successfully developed, which may have great meaning in the origin of life.
With the aim to discover and create suitable biocatalysts for the synthesis of chiral amines in a faster and more efficient way, this thesis includes protein engineering studies (Article I), explores transaminase substrate specificities (Articles II and IV), and an ultrahigh-throughput growth system-based for the directed evolution of amine-forming enzymes (Article III).
The protein engineering studies described in Article I deal with the creation of a (R)-amine transaminase activity in the α-amino acid transaminase scaffold to expand our knowledge of the evolutionary relationship between amine transaminase and α-amino acid transaminase. Article II describes the broadening of the limited substrate scope of transaminases to enable the conversion of bulky substrates. In Article III, a growth selection system is described for an ultra-high throughput screening strategy to accelerate the identification of desired mutants, which can be widely applied to the directed evolution of amine-forming enzymes.
The focus of the first two articles was the engineering and application of enzymes for the conversion of the bio-based resources glycerol and its oxidation product glyceraldehyde for the production of the value added product glyceric acid. Article III focuses on the cloning, exploration and engineering of a polyol dehydrogenase, which later on was used as cofactor recycling system in order to produce ε-caprolactone from cyclohexanol as presented in arti-cle IV. The following paragraphs will give a short outline of each article. ARTICLE I: ASYMMETRIC SYNTHESIS OF D-GLYCERIC ACID BY AN ALDITOL OXIDASE AND DIRECTED EVOLUTION FOR ENHANCED OXIDATIVE ACTIVITY TOWARDS GLYCEROL. GERSTENBRUCH, S., WULF, H., MUßMANN, N., O’CONNELL, T., MAURER, K.-H. & BORNSCHEUER, U. T. (2012). Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 96, 1243-1252. The alditol oxidase of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) (AldO) was used to catalyze the oxida-tion of glycerol to glyceraldehyde and glyceric acid. The enantioselectivity for the FAD-de-pendent glycerol oxidation was elucidated and different strategies were used to enhance the substrate specificity towards glycerol. Directed evolution by error-prone PCR led to an AldO double mutant with 1.5-fold improved activity for glycerol. Further improvement of activity was achieved by combination of mutations, leading to a quadruple mutant with 2.4-fold higher specific activity towards glycerol compared to the wild-type enzyme. In small-scale biotransformation concentrations up to 2.0 g•l-1 D-glyceric acid could be reached using whole cells. Investi¬gation of the effects of the introduced mutations led to a further identification of es¬sential amino acids with respect to enzyme functionality and structural stability. ARTICLE II: KINETIC RESOLUTION OF GLYCERALDEHYDE USING AN ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE FROM DEINOCOCCUS GEOTHERMALIS DSM 11300 COMBINED WITH ELECTROCHEMICAL COFACTOR RECYCLING. WULF, H., PERZBORN, M., SIEVERS, G., SCHOLZ, F. & BORNSCHEUER, U. T. (2012). J. Mol. Catal. B Enzym. 74, 144-150. Two aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) from Escherichia coli BL21 and Deinococcus geother-malis were cloned, characterized and evaluated according to their applicability for a bio-catalysis setup with electrolytic cofactor recycling. Both ALDHs turned out to have a sim¬ilar substrate scope and favor short to medium chain aldehydes and both oxidize glyceralde¬hyde to D-glyceric acid. The ALDH variant of D. geothermalis shows higher specific activity towards glyceraldehyde and has an elevated optimum temperature compared to the BL21 enzyme. Due to the higher specific activity of the ALDH of D. geothermalis, this enzyme was used to conduct a kinetic resolution of glyceraldehyde with electrolytic NAD+ recycling at a glassy carbon foam electrode with ABTS as redox mediator yielding in 1.8 g•l-1 glyceric acid. ARTICLE III: PROTEIN ENGINEERING OF A THERMOSTABLE POLYOL DEHYDROGENASE. WULF, H.*, MALLIN, H.*, BORNSCHEUER U.T. (2012). Enzyme Microb. Technol. 51, 217-224 (*equally contributed). The new enzyme polyol dehydrogenase PDH-11300 from D. geothermalis was extensively characterized regarding its temperature optimum and thermostability. A peptide stretch responsible for substrate recognition from the PDH-11300 was substituted by this particular stretch of a homolog enzyme, the galactitol dehydrogenase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (PDH-158), resulting in a chimeric enzyme (PDH-loop). The substrate scopes were deter-mined and basically the chimeric enzyme represented the average of both wild-type en-zymes. A rather unexpected finding was the notably increased T5060, by 7°C to 55.3°C, and an increased specific activity against cyclohexanol. Finally, the cofactor specificity was suc¬cess-fully altered from NADH to NADPH by an Asp55Asn mutation, which is located at the NAD+ binding cleft, without influencing the catalytic properties of the dehydrogenase. ARTICLE IV: A SELF-SUFFICIENT BAEYER-VILLIGER BIOCATALYSIS SYSTEM FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF Ɛ-CAPROLACTONE FROM CYCLOHEXANOL. MALLIN, H. *, WULF, H. *, BORNSCHEUER U.T. (2013). Enzyme Microb. Technol., online, DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2013.01.007 (*equally contributed). The application of the engineered PDH-loopN mutant [1] (Article III) for the production of ε-caprolactone from cyclohexanol was investigated in a co-immobilization approach with the cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Biotransformation with solubilized enzymes led to an isolated yield of 55% pure ε-caprolactone with no residual cy-clohexanol to be detected. During the immobilization experiments a higher enzyme ratio in favor of the CHMO led to higher reaction velocities. Similarly, the addition of soluble fresh CHMO during reuse of co-immobilization batches significantly increased the activity identi-fying the CHMO as the bottleneck in this reaction setup.
Fast screening of enzyme variants is crucial for tailoring biocatalysts for the asymmetric synthesis of non-natural chiral chemicals, such as amines. However, most existing screening methods either are limited by the throughput or require specialized equipment. Herein, we report a simple, high-throughput, low-equipment dependent, and generally applicable growth selection system for engineering amine-forming or converting enzymes and apply it to improve biocatalysts belonging to three different enzyme classes. This results in (i) an amine transaminase variant with 110-fold increased specific activity for the asymmetric synthesis of the chiral amine intermediate of Linagliptin; (ii) a 270-fold improved monoamine oxidase to prepare the chiral amine intermediate of Cinacalcet by deracemization; and (iii) an ammonia lyase variant with a 26-fold increased activity in the asymmetric synthesis of a non-natural amino acid. Our growth selection system is adaptable to different enzyme classes, varying levels of enzyme activities, and thus a flexible tool for various stages of an engineering campaign.
Abstract
Biocatalysis has found numerous applications in various fields as an alternative to chemical catalysis. The use of enzymes in organic synthesis, especially to make chiral compounds for pharmaceuticals as well for the flavors and fragrance industry, are the most prominent examples. In addition, biocatalysts are used on a large scale to make specialty and even bulk chemicals. This review intends to give illustrative examples in this field with a special focus on scalable chemical production using enzymes. It also discusses the opportunities and limitations of enzymatic syntheses using distinct examples and provides an outlook on emerging enzyme classes.
The definition of Green Chemistry was first formulated at the beginning of the 1990s – 30 years ago and states as follows: “design of chemical products and processes to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances” (Poliakoff et al. 2002). Biocatalysis is one of the examples of “green” chemistry as it is relying on natural or modified enzymes. Today, biocatalysis is a standard technology for the production of chemicals (Straathof et al. 2002).
In this PhD thesis, the implications of biocatalysis using different class of enzymes are discussed: two cytochrome P450 monoxygenases, two kinases and one lyase are shown as tools for the production of bioactive compounds.
The P450 enzymes have a central role in the oxidative metabolism of a wide variety of compounds including the synthesis of endogenous substrates such as steroids and fatty acids. Moreover, P450s catalyze the hydroxylation of non-activated carbon atoms in a regio- and stereospecific fashion avoiding use of protecting groups and several, time-consuming chemical steps.
Here, the recombinant expression and biocatalytic characterization of bacterial CYP107D1 for the regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of two steroid compounds is reported. Since the natural electron transfer partners of these P450s are unknown, PdX and PdR from P. putida were employed to supply CYP107D1 with the necessary electrons for catalysis. This three-component system was used in bioconversions of two bile acids: LCA and DCA. P450 CYP107D1 exhibits high regio- and stereoselectivity for the tested steroids, giving 6β-hydroxylated products. The properties of the CYP107D1 make this multifaceted P450 monooxygenase an attractive enzyme for the production of novel drug metabolites. Moreover, the crystal structure of the enzyme is known, which provides the basis for developing a protein-engineering strategy aimed at catalytic properties of the CYP107D1
The second enzyme described in the thesis is the self-sufficient cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Fusarium graminarium (FG067). From the overall structure, it resembles the well investigated CYP102 from Bacillus megaterium (CYP BM3) and the P450 from Fusarium oxysporum (CYPfoxy). In this study, two different strategies to recombinantly produce the fungal P450 monooxygenase P450-FG067, namely (a) producing in E. coli and (b) producing in P. pastoris were investigated. The P450 FG_067 from Fusarium graminarium was successfully overexpressed in P. pastoris. The enzyme was functionally active, converted fatty acid substrates of carbon chain length C10-16 with regiospecificity of the hydroxylating position ω -1, ω - 2 and ω-3, with the highest affinity for capric acid. The hydroxylation at different positions of the fatty acid chain is needed for different chemical industries. For example, ω-HFAs can be used as starting materials for the synthesis of polymers, with high resistance to heat or chemicals (Xiao et al. 2018). Therefore, the application of recombinant enzyme such as self-sufficient P450 FG_067 for a commercial production of HFAs is in high industrial demand.
In this thesis, two kinases were used for the producton of phosphorylated metabolites. Kinases catalyzing N-phosphorylation, which are of synthetic interest because of tedious chemical procedures in selective chemical N-phosphorylations. A highly active and stabile arginine kinase, obtained by cloning and expressing the argK gene from Limulus polyphemus in E. coli, was used in the one-step synthesis of Nω-phospho-L-arginine using the phosphoenolpyruvate/pyruvate kinase system for ATP regeneration. Applying arginine kinase in biocatalysis opens up new opportunities for the selective biocatalytic N-phosphorylation of interesting low-molecular-weight compounds and metabolites.
Another kinase investigated in this thesis was shikimate kinase. The highly active and stable shikimate kinase AroL was achieved by synthesizing the codon-optimized aroL gene and expressing it in high yield in E. coli. Next, shikimate kinase was used in an one-step synthesis of shikimate-3-phosphate using the phosphoenolpyruvate/pyruvate kinase system for ATP regeneration. Development of the described biocatalytic preparation of shikimate-3-phosphate is a superior route incomparison to a tedious multi-step and low yield classical synthesis of this compound. The biocatalytic phosphorylation is of great interest for a commercial production of metabolites and metabolite-like structures.
The last investigeted enzyme in this PhD thesis was argininosuccinate lyase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The argininosuccinate lyase was cloned and overexpressed in E. coli as a highly active and stable biocatalyst. A simple and straightforward biocatalytic asymmetric Michael addition reaction has been established for the synthesis of the key metabolite N-(([(4S)-4-amino-4-carboxybutyl]amino)imino methyl)-L-aspartic acid, commonly referred to as L-argininosuccinate. This one-step addition reaction was developed by running part of the urea cycle in reverse. The use of this argininosuccinate lyase and reaction monitoring by NMR enabled the development of a biocatalytic asymmetric Michael addition reaction as a novel green chemistry route with high molecular economy for the synthesis of this important metabolite at gram scale.
Recent advances in the field of scientific research have helped to understand the structure and functional activities of enzymes, which has in turn led to an increase in their stability, activity and substrate specificity. Nowadays, biocatalysis provide more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting methods for the production of fine chemicals and advanced pharmaceutical intermediates. The biocatalysts used in this thesis are introduced as a technology for the efficient synthesis of biologically active compounds, which is greener, reduces pollution and costs compared to chemical synthesis. In summary, the pharmaceutical industry should use the advantage of the progress of biochemistry to obtain biocatalysts in the production of fine chemicals on an industrial scale, improving the quality of end products and saving costs.
Diese Arbeit beschreibt den Aufbau eines Assays zur Selektion eines Ribozyms, welches die Desaminierung von Adenosin zu Inosin katalysiert. Diese Reaktion spielt im Organismus, wo sie proteinkatalysiert abläuft, eine wichtige Rolle (Nukleotidmetabolismus, RNA-Editing). Zusätzlich besitzt ein solches Ribozym das Potenzial zur gezielten Veränderung von RNA-Sequenzen. Das Projekt hat somit evolutionstheoretische (RNA-Welt-Hypothese) als auch gentherapeutische Relevanz. Zentraler Punkt des vorgestellten Assays ist die Markierung einer Mischung verschiedener RNA-Sequenzen (= Bibliothek) mit dem Substrat Adenosin. Dieses trägt an der exozyklischen Aminogruppe eine Biotinfunktion. Wird diese Bibliothek auf einer festen Phase über die Biotin/Streptavidin-Wechselwirkung immobilisiert und den Selektionsbedingungen unterworfen, werden Spezies mit der gewünschten Aktivität in Lösung entlassen. Diese können eluiert und über RT-PCR angereichert werden. Die Funktionalisierung der RNA-Bibliothek geschieht am 5’-Ende jeder Sequenz durch Transkriptionspriming aus einer chemisch synthetisierten DNA-Bibliothek in Gegenwart der vier NTPs und eines Guanosin-5’-monophosphatderivats, dem „Initiator“. Letzteres ist über die 5’-Phosphatfunktion mit dem biotinylierten Substrat Adenosin verknüpft. Das Initiatormolekül wurde in zwei Strategien synthetisiert. Die erste Strategie fand an der festen Phase unter Verwendung des Phosphoramiditverfahrens statt und lieferte Initiator in nanomolarem Maßstab. Die zweite Strategie bestand aus einer 17-stufigen Synthese in Lösung und ergab fast identisches Initiatormolekül in µmolarem Maßstab. Beide Initiatormoleküle wurden erfolgreich zur Funktionalisierung einer RNA eingesetzt. Zur qualitativen Dokumentation des Einbaus des Initiators wurde eine auf Chemilumineszenzdetektion basierende Methode entwickelt. Dabei wurden die Transkriptionsprodukte auf eine Nylonmembran immobilisiert und mit einem Fusionsprotein aus Alkalischer Phosphatase und Streptavidin inkubiert, welches spezifisch den Biotinrest bindet. Durch Zugabe eines möglichen Substrats der Alkalischen Phosphatase wird ein Chemilumineszenzsignal erzeugt, was über einen Röntgenfilm dokumentiert wurde. Dieser qualitative Nachweis wurde erweitert, um die Einbaueffizienz zu quantifizieren. Dazu wurde eine RNA, welche zu 100% mit dem Initiatormolekül markiert war, mit Hilfe des Phosphoramiditverfahrens hergestellt. Diese als Standard fungierende RNA wurde in definierter Menge zusammen mit definierten Mengen an statistisch funktionalisierten Primingprodukt geblottet. Die Quantifizierung der Chemilumineszenz der Proben erfolgte mit Hilfe eines Photosystems und durch Integration der Signalintensitäten. Dadurch konnte der Anteil der in den durchgeführten Primingreaktionen mit Initiator markierten RNA zu maximal 3 % bestimmt werden. Obwohl eine Erhöhung dieses Wertes z.B. durch Optimierung der Initiatorstruktur wünschenswert ist, ist damit die Funktionalisierung einer RNA-Bibliothek in einer für die Selektion ausreichenden Menge durchaus möglich. Zur Evaluation des Assays wurde der Selektionsschritt simuliert, in welchem ein über das Initiatormolekül festphasengebundenes Ribozym spezifisch zur Selbstspaltung aktiviert wird. Zu diesem Zweck wurden ein Hammerheadriboyzm, ein Hairpinribozym sowie ein DNAzym untersucht. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die Spaltaktivität aller drei Systeme durch Funktionalisierung mit dem Initiator in Lösung fast vollständig inhibiert wird, unmarkierte Spezies unter identischen Bedingungen jedoch uneingeschränkte Spaltaktivität zeigen. Die beobachtete Inhibierung beruht auf einem intramolekularen Effekt, der möglicherweise zu einer Verschiebung des Konformerengleichgewichts der Testsysteme hin zu spaltinaktiven Konformeren führt. Zusätzlich wurde die Spaltaktivität des mit Initiator markierten und an einer Festphase immobilisierten Hairpinribozyms untersucht. Auch hier war eine stark verringerte Spaltaktivität zu beobachten, welche jedoch in unspezifischen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Festphase und Ribozym begründet liegen könnten. Die verwendeten Systeme eignen sich offenbar nicht zur Evaluierung des Assays, was jedoch die Möglichkeit offen lässt, dass im geplanten Assay selektierte RNA-Sequenzen die Funktionalisierung mit Initiator tolerieren. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit erlauben den Schluss, dass die gewählte Strategie zur Selektion der Adenosindesaminase einige Punkte beinhaltet, welche nach Möglichkeit optimiert werden müssen, um eine effizientere Selektion durchführen zu können. Prinzipiell ist die Vorraussetzung für die Selektion der Adenosindesaminase durch die beschriebene Methode jedoch geschaffen und kann basierend auf den vorgestellten Ergebnissen in zukünftigen Studien durchgeführt werden.
Die akute Pankreatitis ist eine der häufigsten nicht malignen gastrointestinalen Erkrankungen, die zu Krankenhausaufenthalten führt. Sie ist als Selbstverdau des Pankreas durch seine eigenen Proteasen wie z.B. Trypsin, Elastase und Chymotrypsin definiert. Als Ursprung der Erkrankung wird die frühzeitige intrazelluläre Aktivierung dieser Verdauungsenzyme angesehen. Dies führt zum Zelltod der Azinuszellen und zur Schädigung des Gewebes.
Während der akuten Pankreatitis kommt es in 20% der Fälle zu einem schweren Verlauf der Erkrankung, der mit Organversagen in der Lunge und den Nieren assoziiert ist. Es ist bekannt, dass es zu einer Entzündungsreaktion kommt, bei der große Mengen an Zytokinen ausgeschüttet werden. Leukozyten infiltrieren das Pankreas und verstärken den Gewebeschaden. Es kommt zur Freisetzung von DAMPs, die das angeborene und adaptive Immunsystem aktivieren. Bislang ist nicht gut untersucht, wie das Immunsystem den schweren Verlauf der akuten Pankreatitis beeinflusst und es gibt wenig Theorien über den Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren.
In dieser Arbeit lag der Fokus auf dem Organschaden in Lunge und Niere und die Wirkung von Interleukin 33 (IL33) auf die Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems und deren Einwanderung in verschiedene Organe während der schweren akuten Pankreatitis im Mausmodell. Die schwere akute Pankreatitis wurde mittels Gangligatur und einmaliger Gabe von Caerulein an Tag 2 nach Gangligatur induziert. An Tag 3 nach Induktion wurden die Mäuse getötet und die Organe wurden für weitere Analysen entnommen.
Am dritten Tag nach Induktion der Pankreatitis kam es zu einem Organschaden in der Lunge und den Nieren. In der Lunge fand sich eine Verdickung der Alveolarsepten und eine Verdichtung des Gewebes sowie eine Infiltration von Leukozyten und ein Ödem. In der Niere waren ebenfalls strukturelle Veränderungen zu finden und eine Infiltration von Leukozyten war zu beobachten. In durchflusszytometrischen Analysen der Lunge konnte beobachtet werden, dass CD11b+CD62L+ Monozyten während der akuten Pankreatitis signifikant anstiegen. Mittels RT-DC wurde gezeigt, dass diese Monozyten an Tag 3 signifikant an Größe zugenommen hatten. Mit einer CD11b Färbungen von Lungen und Nieren konnte die Infiltration durch Monozyten bestätigt werden. Unter einer Blockade von Monozyten durch systemische Gabe von anti-CCR2-Antikörpern verringerte sich die Schädigung in Lunge und Niere während der Pankreatitis signifikant.
Diese Daten legen nahe, dass der Organschaden in der schweren akuten Pankreatitis durch infiltrierende Monozyten verursacht wird, die über CD62L (L-Selektin) an die Gefäßwände binden und über ihre Größe Gefäße verstopfen, was in den Kapillaren zur Ischämie führt.
In vitro sezernierten Makrophagen, die mit CCK stimulierten Azinuszellen co-inkubiert wurden, IL33. Im Mausmodell wurde IL33 mittels sST2 blockiert, was die Schädigung des Pankreas in der Pankreatitis reduzierte. In IL33-depletierten Tieren fand sich im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ein geringerer Lungenschaden aber eine unveränderte Nierenschädigung. Somit scheint IL33 eine Rolle bei der Monozyten-vermittelten Organschädigung in der Pankreatitis zu spielen, die sich auf Grund von kompensatorischen Regulationsmechanismen im globalen IL33 Knock-out weniger gut belegen lässt als nach IL33 Inhibition. Die Hemmung von IL33 zur Behandlung der akuten Pankreatitis stellt somit ein vielversprechendes Therapieprinzip dar.
Interactions between bacteria and the human body are manifold and happen constantly. Most parts of the skin and gastrointestinal tract, the saliva, the oral mucosa, the conjunctiva and the vaginal mucosa are colonized with a multitude of bacterial species forming the human microbiota. Strikingly, the estimated amount of bacterial cells outnumbers the human body by 10 to 1. However, most of these bacteria colonize the human body without positive or negative effects and are regarded as commensals. Staphylococcus aureus a Gram positive bacterium is such a commensal bacterium of 25 % to 30 % of the world population. It is also an opportunistic pathogen and is able to cause infections in the lung, skin and heart and to induce sepsis. Its pathogenicity is mainly facilitated by the secretion of a broad spectrum of virulence factors which interact with the host. Some are distracting the immune system, others are targeting the host cell membrane or degrade macromolecular structures of the host in order to provide nutrients. Furthermore S. aureus is able to invade the host cell and to survive and replicate in the host cell cytosol or other compartments. The Gram negative proteobacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei is an environmental bacterium but still has the ability to enter the human body via body orifices or skin wounds. In a very efficient way it penetrates the host cell, replicates intracellular and the uses host structures to spread from cell to cell thereby causing the disease melioidosis often with fatal outcomes. Since the natural habitats of B. pseudomallei are wet soils, the change to the environment in the human body is drastic and requires a high degree of flexibility of the bacterium. Environmental stress conditions such as temperature, pH, nutrient limitation or presence of antibiotics induce a switch of colony morphology which is a special characteristic of this bacterium. Since it is assumed, that changes in colony morphology are connected to adaptive processes to the environmental changes, these morphology switches might also be important during infection. The host organism and the host cell on the other side try to kill and remove the bacterial threat by activating the immune system and cellular defence mechanisms. This includes generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, production of antimicrobial peptides and cellular processes such as phagocytosis, autophagy, apoptosis and activation of the immune response. The actions and reactions on both, the pathogen side and the host side, are summarized as host-pathogen interactions. In the field of functional genomics, methods were developed to understand various levels of host-pathogen interactions. The holistic analysis of the mRNA (the transcriptome) or translated proteins (the proteome) were already very useful tools to describe important cellular processes on the host and the pathogen site. The level of metabolites with regard to host-pathogen interactions however, has been neglected so far. In this dissertation the metabolic composition in the intracellular and extracellular space of the host and the pathogen was analyzed. For this matter biochemical analytical tools were used such as 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and chromatographic methods (GC and HPLC) coupled to mass spectrometry. The combination of these methods allows a broad coverage of physicochemical diverse metabolites. In accordance to the above mentioned biological levels like mRNA and proteins, the sum of all metabolites is referred as the metabolome. Consequently to transcriptomics and proteomics the analysis of the metabolome is referred as metabolomics. To gain insights into the infection relevant metabolome of the host-pathogen relationship between S. aureus and human lung cells several approaches were developed. First the distribution of the recently identified bacillithiol in different S. aureus strains was investigated with regard to its role during the infection. For that matter a HPLC-methodology was used with fluorescence based detection of labelled low molecular weight thiols (article I: Distribution and infection-related functions of bacillithiol in Staphylococcus aureus). After that the next aim was to reveal the effect of S. aureus on the host cell metabolism. To reduce the complexity of effects on the host cells an artificial model was chosen in a first approach. The lung cells were treated with the staphylococcal virulence factor alpha-hemolysin, a pore forming toxin and a holistic metabolomics approach was performed (article II: Staphylococcus aureus Alpha-Toxin Mediates General and Cell Type-Specific Changes in Metabolite Concentrations of Immortalized Human Airway Epithelial Cells). Using this approach, a protocol for cell culture metabolomics was established and first changes in the host cell metabolome that could be caused by S. aureus were described. However, this only describes specific changes caused by one single virulence factor and does not necessarily describes the reality during a S. aureus infection. Therefore in a next approach, an infection model using a human lung epithelial cell line and the S. aureus strain USA300 was established and used for metabolome analysis. Furthermore a combination of inhibitor treatment and metabolic labelling was used to clarify the metabolic activity in the host cell after exposure to S. aureus (article III: Metabolic features of a human airway epithelial cell line infected with Staphylococcus aureus revealed by a metabolomics approach). Finally this thesis deals with the host-pathogen interaction of B. pseudomallei and its host with a focus on the role of the switch in colony morphology in basic metabolism. Various morphotypes of two strains were generated by nutrient limitation and their uptake of nutrients was monitored. Furthermore the morphotypes were used in in vitro and in vivo infections and subsequently isolated out of the cell line and mice respectively. After isolation, the colony morphology was determined and again the nutrient uptake profile was monitored (article IV: Burkholderia pseudomallei morphotypes show a synchronized metabolic pattern after acute infection). The information provided by this thesis adds a new complexity to the knowledge about the host-pathogen interactions of S. aureus and B. pseudomallei and their hosts. It furthermore lays the groundwork for future studies, which will deal with these and other bacterial host-pathogen interactions in order to understand the interdependencies of infection and metabolism.
Bradyrhizobium diazoefficiens, a bacterial symbiont of soybean and other leguminous plants, enters a nodulation‐promoting genetic programme in the presence of host‐produced flavonoids and related signalling compounds. Here, we describe the crystal structure of an isoflavonoid‐responsive regulator (FrrA) from Bradyrhizobium, as well as cocrystal structures with inducing and noninducing ligands (genistein and naringenin, respectively). The structures reveal a TetR‐like fold whose DNA‐binding domain is capable of adopting a range of orientations. A single molecule of either genistein or naringenin is asymmetrically bound in a central cavity of the FrrA homodimer, mainly via C–H contacts to the π‐system of the ligands. Strikingly, however, the interaction does not provoke any conformational changes in the repressor. Both the flexible positioning of the DNA‐binding domain and the absence of structural change upon ligand binding are corroborated by small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS) experiments in solution. Together with a model of the promoter‐bound state of FrrA our results suggest that inducers act as a wedge, preventing the DNA‐binding domains from moving close enough together to interact with successive positions of the major groove of the palindromic operator.
The relevance of cold atmospheric plasmas (CAPs) in biomedicine has recently grown. The potential of CAPs has been discussed in multiple scientific works, highlighting its effectiveness in promoting wound healing, limiting cancer progression, and for sterilization of surfaces. Main bioactive molecules, such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), are proposed as key candidates in these processes. Indeed, the generation of cold plasma induces noble gas ionization which, reacting with atmospheric air molecules, generates species such as singlet oxygen, atomic oxygen radicals, nitric oxide radicals. Although molecular simulations have been conducted, the mechanism of action on biological molecules, as well as the possibility to tune plasmas to produce specific species cocktails (e.g., with different degree of oxidation power) has been not fully unleashed. In this dissertation, presented in form of 5 published scientific articles, focus has been placed on the interaction of plasmas with peptides and proteins, which are main biological effectors in cellular compartments. Precisely, through the development of liquid chromatography coupled mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods, the effects of plasmas on peptides and proteins in form of oxidative post-translational modifications (oxPTMs) has been investigated. The characterization of these oxPTMs has been performed by treating peptide or protein aqueous solutions and on porcine skin tissues. It has been found that, introducing small amounts of different gases (oxygen, nitrogen, or both) or even water molecules, can made CAPs tunable tools to produce oxygen-species dominating effects versus nitrogen-species dominating effects. In addition to this, it was found that the amino acid position in a peptide or protein influences the quality and quantity of the resulting oxPTMs. Besides this, other important parameters like driven gases, admixture gases or treatment duration were identified as relevant factors for the modification of amino acids in the peptide structure. By comparing the effects between peptide solutions and complex matrices such as porcine skin, water has been identified as a valid vehicle to transport and amplify the plasma chemistry. In an experimental study, the inactivation of a protein (PLA2) was observed after CAP treatment and together with simulation studies, the specific dioxidation of tryptophane W128 was detected as a potential explanation for this inactivation, indicating the strong impact of plasma on biological targets. In summary, oxidative modifications found in peptide solutions were observed also in complex protein structures and sample matrices. In conclusion, this work provides a starting point for future studies of oxidative modifications in complex models and may thus be helpful for further investigations in the fields of plasma medicine and redox chemistry.
Chiral amines represent high-value fine chemicals serving as key intermediate products in pharmaceutical, chemical and agrochemical industries. In the past decades, application of amine transaminases (ATAs) for stereoselective amination of prochiral ketones emerged to an environmentally benign and economically attractive alternative to transition metal-catalyzed asymmetric synthesis to afford optically pure amines at industrial scale. However, the restricted substrate scope of wild-type transaminases prohibited the conversion of particularly sterically demanding substrates, making protein engineering indispensable. The following thesis covers elaboration of a novel assay for transaminases (Article I) and identification and development of transaminase variants in order to achieve biocatalytic preparation of a set of pharmaceutically relevant model amines, ideally in optically pure form for both stereoisomers, preferentially using asymmetric synthesis and most preferably using isopropylamine as cost-efficient amine donor co-substrate (Article II-IV). The aforementioned target amines and the corresponding precursor ketones (see Scheme 4.1) were conceived and provided by the company F. Hoffmann-La Roche to attain suitable biocatalysts for a variety of potential intermediates for active pharmaceutical ingredients. Protein engineering of the transaminase scaffolds investigated in this thesis comprised: Initial screening for suitable starting enzyme scaffolds, structure-guided rational design of these scaffolds to enable bulky planar substrate acceptance, elaboration of a sequence motif, verification of the motif and preparative-scale asymmetric synthesis reactions (Article II). For non-planar and structurally different target substrates, namely spatially bulky or bi-cyclic bridged substrates, the transaminase variants were specifically refined and a different evolutionary route had to be pursued (Article III and Article IV). These results (Article II) represent not only the first successful endeavor to engineer a PLP-fold type I amine transaminase (commonly denoted as (S)-selective) for the conversion of highly sterically demanding substrates, but also generally expanded the scope of available fold type I amine transaminases by enzymes having a novel and exceptionally broad substrate spectrum. Aside from structure-guided rational protein engineering, as well non-rational methods, such as site-specific saturation mutagenesis or directed evolution, were applied for protein-engineering. In order to do so for all of the target compounds, a novel high-throughput solid phase activity assay for transaminases that was actually developed during the master thesis, was refined and published (Article I). In the context of this thesis, the same assay principle was as well adapted for quantification of specific activities in liquid phase (Article III). A comparison of different methodologies for developing agar plate assays and a detailed step by step protocol of our transaminase assay are illustrated in a book chapter.
Rekombinante Expression und Design der Aminoacylase 1 für die Synthese von N-Acyl-Aminosäuren
(2009)
Im Rahmen der Dissertation wurde die Möglichkeit der enzymatischen N Acylierung von Aminosäuren über eine thermodynamisch kontrollierte Reaktion im wässrigen Medium untersucht. Eine Auswahl von Biokatalysatoren wurde auf ihre Eignung hin untersucht und die Aminoacylase 1 aus der Schweineniere (pAcy1) als Wildtyp-Enzym ausgewählt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das primäre Problem bei der pAcy1-katalysierten Synthese der Modellkomponente N-Lauroyl-L-Glutamat (NLLG) in einem sehr ungünstigen thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht liegt. Dieses konnte zwar durch den pH-Wert zugunsten der Synthese verschoben werden, lieferte aber auch unter optimierten Bedingungen nur unzureichende Umsätze. Als primäre Probleme auf Seiten des Biokatalysators wurde ein niedriges Verhältnis zwischen der Synthese und Hydrolyse des Produktes (S/H-Verhältnis) neben einer vergleichsweise schlechten Akzeptanz langkettiger Acyldonoren identifiziert. Um für eine Optimierung des Enzyms die Methoden des rationalen Protein Designs und der gerichteten Evolution zu nutzen, wurde ein rekombinantes Expressionssystem über ein synthetisches Gen der pAcy1 auf dem Vektor pET52(b) realisiert. Durch die Anpassung des Expressionsmediums, der Temperatur sowie der Co-Expression molekularer Chaperone konnten etwa 80 mg aufgereinigtes Enzym pro Liter Fermentationslösung erhalten werden. Das rekombinante Protein wurde biochemisch charakterisiert und die Aktivität gegenüber dem bevorzugten Substrat der pAcy1 N-Acetyl-L-Methionin (NAM) mit 94 U/mg quantifiziert. Die Optimierung des S/H-Verhältnisses der pAcy1 fokussierte sich auf das Potential der katalytischen Base (E146) zur Protonenaufnahme. Als Basis für ein rationales Design wurde ein Strukturmodell erstellt und ein Aspartat an der Position 346 identifiziert, welches den pKa-Wert von E146 maßgeblich beeinflusst. Durch Modellierungen der Elektrostatik im aktiven Zentrum wurde die Substitution von D346 zu Alanin, Asparaginsäure, Glutamat und Glutamin vorgeschlagen und weiterhin die Mutation der katalytischen Base selbst untersucht. Versuche zur Beschreibung des S/H-Verhältnisses von erstellten Varianten der pAcy1 wurden anschließend mit NAM als Modellkomponente durchgeführt. Bei allen Mutanten war ein starker Rückgang der Gesamtaktivität zu verzeichnen, wobei die Restaktivitäten der 146X-Varianten maximal 0,5% und die der 346X-Varianten maximal 9% bei der Hydrolyse betrugen. Durch die parallele Quantifizierung der Synthesereaktion konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich das S/H-Verhältnis durch die Substitution des Asp346 in beide Richtungen verschieben lässt, wobei die gewünschte Erhöhung des Verhältnisses mit einer stark verminderten Gesamtaktivität einhergeht. Die Mutante D346A wies z.B. eine Erhöhung des S/H-Verhältnisses von 0.02 auf 0.18 auf, wobei allerdings die Restaktivität im Vergleich zum Wildtyp-Enzym bei der Synthese 0.2% und die in der Hydrolyse 0.05% betrug. Zur Erklärung dieser Beobachtungen wurde die pH-Abhängigkeit der pAcy1-Varianten für die Hydrolyse des artifiziellen Substrats Furyl-Acyl-M ethionin (FAM) bestimmt. Eine Verschiebung des pH-Optimums ins Saure bzw. ins Basische korrelierte bei D346A bzw. D346E mit der zuvor bestimmten Verschiebung des S/H-Verhältnisses. Weiterhin sollte die Affinität der pAcy1 gegenüber langkettiger Acyldonoren durch gerichtete Evolution erhöht werden. Da aus der Literatur bekannt ist, dass die Reste I177, T345, L370 die Acylbindetasche des Enzyms definieren, wurden diese über iterative Sättigungsmutagenese randomisiert und so etwa 32.000 Varianten der pAcy1 erzeugt. Zur Charakterisierung einer Mutantenbibliothek wurde ein hochdurchsatzfähiges Expressions- und Screeningsystem etabliert, wofür das bereits realisierte Expressionssystem auf den Mikrolitermaßstab übertragen und auf die besonderen Ansprüche hin optimiert wurde. Zur Charakterisierung der Enzyme wurde eine modifizierte Form eines bereits beschriebenen Proteaseassays verwendet, welcher eine kontinuierliche Messung der entstehenden Aminosäure als Produkt der Hydrolysereaktion erlaubte. Eine vorhergehende Selektion aktiver Varianten auf Minimalmedium erlaubt ein effizientes Screening der Mutantenbibliothek. Das Screening- und Selektionssystem wurde bisher mit der Wildtyp-pAcy1 und einer inaktiven Mutante erfolgreich getestet und zeigte Schwankungen von lediglich ±10%. Das noch ausstehende Screening der Mutantenbibliothek wird in laufenden Arbeiten durchgeführt.