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Staphylococcus (S.) aureus is the most common cause of nosocomial infections and the species is becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics. In contrast, about 35% of the healthy population are colonized with S. aureus in the anterior nares. The genetic make-up of this species is highly diverse. Mobile genetic elements comprise about 15% of the S. aureus genome. They encode many virulence factors like the 21 different known staphylococcal superantigens (SAgs), highly potent activators of T lymphocytes. Besides their well known causative role in food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome, information about SAg involvement in pathogenesis is limited. On the other hand, the human host and its immune response are also highly diverse. This study focuses on SAgs, because they are potent virulence factors that are highly diverse and therefore mirror of the variability of the species S. aureus. The goals of this work were (i) to identify virulence determinants by comparing the prevalence of SAg genes and phages among colonizing and invasive S. aureus isolates and to correlate it with the clonal background, (ii) to determine the prevalence and the development of anti-SAg antibodies in healthy S. aureus carriers and noncarriers as well as in bacteremia patients, and (iii) to elucidate the reasons for the selective lack of neutralizing serum antibodies specific for a subgroup of SAgs, the egc SAgs. In search for a molecular-epidemiological associations between SAgs and different diseases caused by S. aureus we investigated the distribution of SAg genes and/ or bacteriophages and correlated this with the clonal background, determined by spa genotyping. The analysis of more than 700 S. aureus isolates from nasal colonization, bacteremia or furunculosis revealed that SAg-encoding mobile genetic elements and bacteriophages were strongly associated with the clonal background. As a consequence, each clonal lineage was characterized by a typical SAg gene and phage repertoire. Therefore, we suggest that the simultaneous assessment of virulence gene profiles and the genetic background strongly increases the discriminatory power of genetic investigations into the mechanisms of S. aureus pathogenesis. However, we found no association of SAg genes with bacteremia or furunculosis. While functional neutralization assays closely mimic the protective action of anti-SAg antibodies in vivo, they are labor-intensive and time-consuming. A fast and easy method for the simultaneous quantification of antibody binding to multiple staphylococcal antigens is the Luminex® technology. Using serum samples from persistent carriers and noncarriers we showed a strong correlation between antibody binding and neutralizing capacity against the SAg TSST-1. This assay confirmed the astonishing lack of antibodies against egc SAgs in healthy carriers and noncarriers, which was previously described by Holtfreter and coworkers. Since colonization is probably not sufficient to induce a robust antibody response as revealed by experimental colonization with S. aureus, we propose that (minor) infections are required to induce the high titers of non-egc SAg-neutralizing antibodies in healthy adults. To test this, we investigated whether SAgs elicit a neutralizing antibody response during S. aureus bacteremia. At the acute phase of the disease most patients already had neutralizing antibodies against non-egc SAgs, and antibody titers frequently increased during infection. Notably, egc SAgs did not elicit a boost or de novo generation of specific antibodies. The “egc gap” in the antibody response, which has now been shown in healthy adults, as well as following systemic infection with S. aureus, is astonishing. After all, egc SAgs are by far the most prevalent SAgs. In search for an explanation, the intrinsic properties of three recombinant egc (SEI, SElM, SElO) and non-egc SAgs (SEB, SElQ, TSST-1) were compared in depth. Egc and non-egc SAgs were very similar with regard to induced T cell proliferation, cytokine profiles, and gene expression of human immune cells. However, there was a striking difference in the regulation of the two groups of SAgs by S. aureus in bacterial culture. We conclude that the differential regulation of egc and non-egc SAg has an impact on the immune response. But how are SAgs regulated by S. aureus during its interaction with the host? Up until now most research on regulation of virulence factors has been performed in vitro. The immune response can help to shed light on this problem, because it is an exquisitely specific sensor for the exposure to different antigens. The high prevalence of neutralizing serum antibodies against non-egc SAgs indicates that most healthy adults have been exposed to these toxins during their encounters with S. aureus. For egc SAgs this remains an open question. However, initial data indicate that the egc SAg genes are transcribed during nasal colonization.
Untersuchung zur Assoziation von Antikörpern gegen PF4/Heparin-Komplexe mit Parodontalerkrankungen
(2010)
Ziel dieser Fall-Kontroll-Studie war es, zu evaluieren, ob eine Assoziation zwischen dem Vorliegen einer Parodontitis und dem Vorhandensein von PF4/Heparin-Komplex Antikörpern besteht. PF4 ist ein Chemokin, welches vermehrt durch Thrombozyten bei deren Aktivierung ausgeschüttet wird. PF4 kann Komplexe mit negativ geladenen Molekülen bilden. Die Prototypreaktion ist die Formation von PF4/Heparin-Komplexen. Mit Heparin behandelte Patienten können gegen diese Komplexe Antikörper bilden, die zur komplexen Aktivierung der Blutgerinnung mit erhöhtem Risiko zu thrombembolischen Ergeignissen führen können. Diese Antikörper konnten aber auch in nicht mit Heparin behandelten Patienten nachgewiesen werden. Daraus entwickelte sich die Hypothese, dass parodontale Infektionen/Entzündungen möglicherweise über die Aktivierung der Thrombozyten und vermehrte Freisetzung von PF4 die Formation von PF4-Komplexen und Antikörperbildung induzieren könnten. Das Serum von 937 Blutspendern mit einem Alter von 40 - 60 Jahren wurde auf PF4/Heparin-Komplex Antikörper der Klassen IgG, IgA und IgM (ELISA) untersucht. Zu den 99 positiv getesteten Blutspendern (40 Fallprobanden, mittleres Alter 47,9 Jahre) wurden 40 Kontrollprobanden (mittleres Alter 48,1 Jahre) nach Alter (±2 Jahre), Geschlecht, Rauch- und Bildungsstatus gematcht. Die klinischen Parameter waren Zahnzahl, Sondierungstiefe, Attachmentverlust und Bluten nach Sondieren. 50% der Probanden waren männlich, 35% Nichtraucher, 25% ehemalige Raucher und 40% Raucher. 80% (15%) der Probanden haben ein mittleres (hohes) Bildungsniveau. Die Probanden der Fallgruppe hatten einen schlechteren parodontalen Gesundheitszustand als die Kontrollgruppe. Das Risiko eines positiven PF4/Heparin-Komplex-Antikörper-Status’ war 2 bis 7-fach erhöht bei schweren mittleren Sondierungstiefen wie auch bei moderatem und schwerem mittleren Attachmentverlust. Die vorliegende Untersuchung zeigte, dass parodontal erkrankte Probanden ein höheres Risiko für das Auftreten von anti-PF4/Heparin Antikörpern aufwiesen als parodontal gesündere Probanden. Parodontitis könnte mit dem Auftreten von natürlichen anti-PF4/Heparin-Komplex Antikörpern assoziiert sein. Um einen möglichen kausalen Zusammenhang zu evaluieren, sind weitere Studien mit größerem Stichprobenumfang und longitudinalem Design erforderlich.