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This thesis investigates the biocatalytic synthesis of amines and amino alcohols. The applicability and economic feasibility of biocatalysis for chiral amine synthesis is reviewed and the findings were compared to established chemical processes using relevant process parameters (TON, TOF and STY). This review clearly showcases the potential of biocatalysis for the synthesis of chiral amines and provides a valuable guide for synthetic chemists who want to benefit from these new opportunities. Next, biocatalysis is applied for the synthesis of an amino alcohol with two stereocentres: A novel route for the synthesis of all four stereoisomers of 4-amino-1-phenylpentane-2-ol is presented. Enzymes were applied to install both stereocentres successively, which allowed the selective synthesis with high yields and optical purities. A small scale preparative asymmetric transamination yielded one amino alcohol stereoisomer selectively. The approach presented in this thesis provides a valuable option for the synthesis of this compound class as it is highly selective, step efficient and circumvents the need for protecting groups as well as transition-metal catalysis. The substrate scope of an (S)-selective amine transaminase (ATA) was altered in order to expand the applicability for amino alcohol synthesis. Protein engineering was conducted to enlarge the small binding pocket. Small scale preparative synthesis of the 1,2-amino alcohol (R)-phenylglycinol exemplifies the applicability of the evolved variants for the asymmetric synthesis of this compound. The designed variants expand the collection of ATAs that are suitable for the synthesis of amino alcohols with bulkier substituents. To deepen the understanding of ATAs further, a class III TA family wide analysis (which includes (S)-selective ATAs) is presented. After comparing the active site architectures and performing literature research amino acids were identified that correlate with the reaction- and substrate specificity of the enzymes within this family. This information is compiled in a sequence-function matrix, which allows the prediction of the main activity of biochemically uncharacterised enzymes from their sequence. These insights provide a better understanding of the activity determining residues in (S)-ATAs and class III TAs in general.
Enzymatic evolution and the corresponding relationship to substrate scope and catalytic promiscuity were targeted in this thesis. As enzyme examples, pig liver esterase (PLE), oleate hydratases and linoleate isomerases, as well as epoxide hydrolases (EH) and haloalkane dehalogenases (HLD) were used. The substrate scope and the enantiopreference of PLE was analyzed by molecular modeling and substrate docking, since different enantiomeric excesses were detected for the conversion of malonate diethyl esters, depending on the PLE isoenzyme. Additionally, fatty acid converting enzymes with high identity were found and analyzed to comprehend the switch of both activities. Furthermore, the evolutionary connection between EH and HLD was investigated by interconversion studies to implement an HLD acitivity in an EH. By directed evolution and rational design, both possibilities of protein engineering were realized. Finally, a new methodology for targeted, continuous in vivo evolution was established by a temperature-dependent mutagenesis frequency.
The synthesis of valuable chemicals via traditional chemical methods can be often outperformed by the use of enzymes because of their excellent chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity in aqueous solvents at ambient temperatures. On the other hand, enzymes often suffer from several limitations that hamper their industrial application. Protein engineering is commonly applied to overcome these limitations although the generation and the validation of mutants is often a laborious process that may not lead to the desired results within reasonable time frames. This thesis focuses on engineering the enantioselectivity and the substrate scope of industrially relevant enzymes, such as esterases and transaminases. Semi-rational protein engineering was employed to identify improved variants for the synthesis of valuable chemicals ensuring a reduced screening effort. Compared to previous works, 3DM’s applicability was extended to the study of correlated mutations and proved effective in the acceleration of the comprehension and in the mutation of these enzymatic scaffolds. Semi-rational approaches require an extensive amount of information such as protein structures, reaction mechanisms, previous mutational experiments reported in literature and a considerable amount of amino acid sequences from similar proteins to analyze amino acid distributions and correlated mutations. Here, we have exploited 3DM as a tool that can combine all this wealth of information: 3DM is a convenient solution to retrieve and integrate information simplifying decision making in the planning of a semi-rational mutant library since in 3DM’s multiple sequence alignments (MSA) is summarized Nature’s screening process for alternative variants. Furthermore, naturally evolving enzymes often require mutations at more than one position for the acquisition of a new property. Such mutations generate patterns that are recognized by the 3DM algorithm, which creates networks that can be investigated to design strategies that aim to improve the property of interest. Finally, these correlated mutations are connected to the mutations described in publications covered in the PubMed database, thus helping to investigate the role certain positions might play in the network. Article I shows that it is possible to improve the enantioselectivity of an esterase towards a highly symmetrical substrate while drastically reducing the screening effort. This was achieved through the creation of libraries that limit the variants to those identified in the 3DM alignment. Article II shows that networks of correlated mutations are composed of positions that may cluster around a function. These functions can be investigated because 3DM connects the positions in the network to their related publications. In this article, a mutant of the esterase PFE-I from Pseudomonas fluorescens was generated having increased enantioselectivity in the hydrolysis of important target compounds. Article III suggests that the in silico modelling software YASARA, combined with the use of the 3DM database, can further reduce the screening effort: it was possible to identify a hot-spot because both the 3DM database and YASARA docking studies, indicated its importance. This led to a further improved enantioselectivity of the enzyme variant identified in Article II. Article IV shows how MSA may be used to get structural insights into the catalytic properties of enzymes with documented activity. The study of the patterns observed in a large subfamily alignment allowed the definition of the structural determinants important for the substrate recognition in amine transaminases. Article V and VI apply the knowledge acquired for the improvement of the substrate scope in the amine transaminase from Vibrio fluvialis.
In this work, the regioselectivity of different Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) for the conversion of selected substrates was reversed or improved by protein engineering. These studies highlight the importance of substrate positioning for the regioselectivity and that the position of the substrate can be efficiently influenced by introducing proper mutations. It was shown that the beneficial mutations for all BVMOs were partly in corresponding positions. Additionally, the sulfoxidation activity and the stability of BVMOs were targeted and improved by applying protein engineering.
In this work, the discovery, expression and characterization of new eukaryotic Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) from yeasts has been shown. A rational design of one of these enzymes led to the identification of key residues to alter the sulfoxidation activity of this group of enzymes. Additionally, in another rational design approach, the cofactor specificity of the BVMO cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus could be substantially altered to accept the much cheaper and therefore industrially more relevant cofactor NADH.