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Platelet factor 4 (PF4, synonym: CXCL4) is an evolutionary old chemokine with proposed roles in hemostasis and antimicrobial defense. In addition, PF4 has attracted considerable attention as a crucial mediator of one of the most prothrombotic adverse drug effects affecting blood cells, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Interest in PF4 substantially increased in 2021 when it was identified as the target antigen in the life-threatening adverse effect, vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). We address the concept that a major biological function of PF4—a strongly cationic chemokine—is to bind to negatively-charged prokaryotic microorganisms, resulting in structural changes in PF4 that trigger a danger signal recognized by the adaptive immune system. Application of biophysical tools has provided substantial insights into the molecular mechanisms by which PF4 becomes immunogenic, providing insights into a new mechanism of autoimmunity. Binding of autoantibodies with high affinity induces conformational change(s) in the endogenous protein, which are then recognized as foreign antigen, as exemplified by the prothrombotic disorders, autoimmune HIT and VITT. The final part of our review summarizes current assays for HIT and VITT, explaining how structural aspects of anti-PF4 pathobiology relate to assay design and performance characteristics. Currently, functional (platelet activation) assays using washed platelets detect HIT antibodies when heparin is added, and VITT antibodies when PF4 is added. Solid-phase PF4-dependent immunoassays using microtiter plates are sensitive for both HIT and VITT antibodies, while rapid immunoassays, in which the PF4/heparin antigen is coated on beads, are sensitive and specific for HIT, but not for VITT antibodies.
Dynamics of Vascular Protective and Immune Supportive Sphingosine-1-Phosphate During Cardiac Surgery
(2021)
Introduction
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a signaling lipid and crucial in vascular protection and immune response. S1P mediated processes involve regulation of the endothelial barrier, blood pressure and S1P is the only known inducer of lymphocyte migration. Low levels of circulatory S1P correlate with severe systemic inflammatory syndromes such as sepsis and shock states, which are associated with endothelial barrier breakdown and immunosuppression. We investigated whether S1P levels are affected by sterile inflammation induced by cardiac surgery.
Materials and Methods
In this prospective observational study we included 46 cardiac surgery patients, with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB, n=31) and without CPB (off-pump, n=15). Serum-S1P, S1P-sources and carriers, von-Willebrand factor (vWF), C-reactive protein (CRP), procalcitonin (PCT) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured at baseline, post-surgery and at day 1 (POD 1) and day 4 (POD 4) after surgical stimulus.
Results
Median S1P levels at baseline were 0.77 nmol/mL (IQR 0.61-0.99) and dropped significantly post-surgery. S1P was lowest post-surgery with median levels of 0.37 nmol/mL (IQR 0.31-0.47) after CPB and 0.46 nmol/mL (IQR 0.36-0.51) after off-pump procedures (P<0.001). The decrease of S1P was independent of surgical technique and observed in all individuals. In patients, in which S1P levels did not recover to preoperative baseline ICU stay was longer and postoperative inflammation was more severe. S1P levels are associated with its sources and carriers and vWF, as a more specific endothelial injury marker, in different phases of the postoperative course. Determination of S1P levels during surgery suggested that also the anticoagulative effect of heparin might influence systemic S1P.
Discussion
In summary, serum-S1P levels are disrupted by major cardiac surgery. Low S1P levels post-surgery may play a role as a new marker for severity of cardiac surgery induced inflammation. Due to well-known protective effects of S1P, low S1P levels may further contribute to the observed prolonged ICU stay and worse clinical status. Moreover, we cannot exclude a potential inhibitory effect on circulating S1P levels by heparin anticoagulation during surgery, which would be a new pro-inflammatory pleiotropic effect of high dose heparin in patients undergoing cardiac surgery.
Bis zu 5% der Patienten, welche unfraktioniertes Heparin erhalten, bilden eine immunogene Thrombozytopenie aus. Komplikationen dieser Heparin-induzierten Thrombozytopenie (HIT) können gliedmaßen- und lebensbedrohliche Thrombosen sein. Die HIT wird durch Antikörper ausgelöst, die an Komplexe aus dem körpereigenen Protein Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) und Heparin binden. Die Pathogenese der HIT ist weitestgehend aufgeklärt. Jedoch ist immer noch unklar, warum nicht alle Patienten mit anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern eine klinische HIT entwickeln. Testverfahren, die zum Nachweis von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern aufgereinigte Thrombozyten verwenden sind sensitiver als solche, bei denen Vollblut oder Plättchen-reiches Plasma eingesetzt werden. Daraus ergab sich die Fragestellung, ob Faktoren im Plasma den Durchbruch einer HIT bei Anwesenheit von anti-PF4/Heparin Antikörpern inhibieren können. Ein wichtiger Mechanismus in der Pathogenese der HIT ist die Bindung von PF4 an die Thrombozytenoberfläche. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, welche Plasmafaktoren die PF4-Bindung an Thrombozyten beeinflussen können. Da Blutfette und Zuckerstrukturen ausgeschlossen werden konnten, lag der Fokus auf Proteinen als mögliche Hemmfaktoren. Da nicht nur Plasma, sondern auch Serum die PF4-Bindung inhibieren konnte, kamen keine Gerinnungsfaktoren in Frage. Die gesuchten Faktoren waren auch nicht Hitze sensitiv, sodass es sich auch nicht um Komplementfaktoren handeln konnte. Bei einer Standardmethode zur Aufreinigung von IgG aus dem Serum fiel auf, dass das vom IgG befreite Serum keine hemmende Wirkung mehr auf die PF4-Bindung an Thrombozyten zeigte. Jedoch führte die Substitution mit IgG nicht zu dem erwarteten Hemmeffekt, so dass der gesuchte Faktor ebenfalls bei der Aufreinigung entfernt worden sein musste. Die in dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Charakterisierung des Hemmfaktors bildeten eine wichtige Grundlage, um in weiterführenden Versuchen in der gleichen Arbeitsgruppe Fibronektin als möglichen Kandidaten zu identifizieren.