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Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial, malignant, solid tumor found in children. In more than one-third of cases, the tumor is in an advanced stage, with limited resectability. The treatment options include resection, with or without (neo-/) adjuvant therapy, and conservative therapy, the latter even with curative intent. Contrast-enhanced MRI is used for staging and therapy monitoring. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is often included. DWI allows for a calculation of the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) for quantitative assessment. Histological tumor characteristics can be derived from ADC maps. Monitoring the response to treatment is possible using ADC maps, with an increase in ADC values in cases of a response to therapy. Changes in the ADC value precede volume reduction. The usual criteria for determining the response to therapy can therefore be supplemented by ADC values. While these changes have been observed in neuroblastoma, early changes in the ADC value in response to therapy are less well described. In this study, we evaluated whether there is an early change in the ADC values in neuroblastoma under therapy; if this change depends on the form of therapy; and whether this change may serve as a prognostic marker. We retrospectively evaluated neuroblastoma cases treated in our institution between June 2007 and August 2014. The examinations were grouped as ‘prestaging’; ‘intermediate staging’; ‘final staging’; and ‘follow-up’. A classification of “progress”, “stable disease”, or “regress” was made. For the determination of ADC values, regions of interest were drawn along the borders of all tumor manifestations. To calculate ADC changes (∆ADC), the respective MRI of the prestaging was used as a reference point or, in the case of therapies that took place directly after previous therapies, the associated previous staging. In the follow-up examinations, the previous examination was used as a reference point. The ∆ADC were grouped into ∆ADCregress for regressive disease, ∆ADCstable for stable disease, and ∆ADC for progressive disease. In addition, examinations at 60 to 120 days from the baseline were grouped as er∆ADCregress, er∆ADCstable, and er∆ADCprogress. Any differences were tested for significance using the Mann–Whitney test (level of significance: p < 0.05). In total, 34 patients with 40 evaluable tumor manifestations and 121 diffusion-weighted MRI examinations were finally included. Twenty-seven patients had INSS stage IV neuroblastoma, and seven had INSS stage III neuroblastoma. A positive N-Myc expression was found in 11 tumor diseases, and 17 patients tested negative for N-Myc (with six cases having no information). 26 patients were assigned to the high-risk group according to INRG and eight patients to the intermediate-risk group. There was a significant difference in mean ADC values from the high-risk group compared to those from the intermediate-risk group, according to INRG. The differences between the mean ∆ADC values (absolute and percentage) according to the course of the disease were significant: between ∆ADCregress and ∆ADCstable, between ∆ADCprogress and ∆ADCstable, as well as between ∆ADCregress and ∆ADCprogress. The differences between the mean er∆ADC values (absolute and percentage) according to the course of the disease were significant: between er∆ADCregress and er∆ADCstable, as well as between er∆ADCregress and er∆ADCprogress. Forms of therapy, N-Myc status, and risk groups showed no further significant differences in mean ADC values and ∆ADC/er∆ADC. A clear connection between the ADC changes and the response to therapy could be demonstrated. This held true even within the first 120 days after the start of therapy: an increase in the ADC value corresponds to a probable response to therapy, while a decrease predicts progression. Minimal or no changes were seen in cases of stable disease.
Immunotherapies against high-risk neuroblastoma (NB), using the anti-GD2 antibody (Ab) dinutuximab beta (DB), significantly improved patient survival. Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is one of the main mechanisms of action and it is primarily mediated by NK cells. To further improve antitumor efficacy, we investigated here a combinatorial immunotherapy with DB and the double immune checkpoint blockade of T-cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT) and programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1). The effects of ADCC, mediated by DB against NB cells on NK-cell activity, and the expression of TIGIT and CD226 and their ligands CD112 and CD155, as well as of PD-1 and PD-L1 on NB and effector cells, were investigated using flow cytometry. ADCC was assessed with a calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay. The efficacy of a combinatorial immunotherapy with DB, given as a long-term treatment, and the double immune checkpoint blockade of TIGIT and PD-L1 was shown using a resistant murine model of NB, followed by an analysis of the tumor tissue. We detected both TIGIT ligands, CD112 and CD155, on all NB cell lines analyzed. Although ADCC by DB resulted in a strong activation of NK cells leading to an effective tumor cell lysis, a remarkable induction of PD-L1 expression on NB cells, and of TIGIT and PD-1 on effector cells, especially on NK cells, was observed. Additional anti-TIGIT or anti-PD-L1 treatments effectively inhibited tumor growth and improved survival of the mice treated with DB. The superior antitumor effects were observed in the “DB + double immune checkpoint blockade” group, showing an almost complete eradication of the tumors and the highest OS, even under resistant conditions. An analysis of tumor tissue revealed both TIGIT and TIGIT ligand expression on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), suggesting additional mechanisms of protumoral effects in NB. Our data show that the targeting of TIGIT and PD-L1 significantly improves the antitumor efficacy of anti-GD2 immunotherapy, with DB presenting a new effective combinatorial treatment strategy against high-risk tumors.
Simple Summary
Neurotoxicity is an on-target side effect of GD2-directed immunotherapy due to the expression of GD2 on healthy cells. Patients with high-risk neuroblastoma who receive treatment with anti-GD2 immunotherapy, therefore, require close observation and supportive management to improve treatment tolerance and avoid the persistence of neurological symptoms. This study reports on the incidence, clinical course and management of patients who experienced neurotoxicity due to treatment with the anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta, given with or without interleukin-2, in two clinical trials. The majority of severe neurotoxic events were observed in patients treated with dinutuximab beta combined with interleukin-2, with most patients recovering following supportive management. Given the increased risk of neurotoxic events and the lack of clinical benefit reported for the combination treatment in clinical trials, adding interleukin-2 to dinutuximab beta therapy is not recommended. The clinical experiences described here may aid clinicians in managing neurotoxicity associated with dinutuximab beta more effectively.
Abstract
Neurotoxicity is an off-tumour, on-target side effect of GD2-directed immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies. Here, we report the frequency, management and outcome of patients enrolled in two prospective clinical trials who experienced severe neurotoxicity during immunotherapy with the anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta (DB) administered as short-term infusion (HR-NBL1/SIOPEN study, randomisation R2, EudraCT 2006-001489-17) or as long-term infusion (HR-NBL1/SIOPEN study, randomisation R4, EudraCT 2006-001489-17 and LTI/SIOPEN study, EudraCT 2009-018077-31), either alone or with subcutaneous interleukin-2 (scIL-2). The total number of patients included in this analysis was 1102. Overall, 44/1102 patients (4.0%) experienced Grade 3/4 neurotoxicities (HR-NBL1 R2, 21/406; HR-NBL1 R4, 8/408; LTI study, 15/288), including 27 patients with severe neurotoxicities (2.5%). Events occurred predominantly in patients receiving combined treatment with DB and scIL-2. Neurotoxicity was treated using dexamethasone, prednisolone, intravenous immunoglobulins and, in two patients, plasmapheresis, which was highly effective. While neurological recovery was observed in 16 of 21 patients with severe neurotoxicities, 5/1102 (0.45%) patients experienced persistent and severe neurological deficits. In conclusion, severe neurotoxicity is most commonly observed in patients receiving DB with scIL-2. Considering the lack of clinical benefit for IL-2 in clinical trials so far, the administration of IL-2 alongside DB is not recommended.
Treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma (NB) patients with the anti-GD2 antibody (Ab) dinutuximab beta (DB) improves survival by 15%. Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is the major mechanism of action and is primarily mediated by NK cells. Since IL-2 co-treatment did not show a therapeutic benefit but strongly induced Treg, we investigated here a DB-based immunotherapy combined with the immunocytokine FAP-IL-2v, which comprises a fibroblast activation protein α (FAP)-specific Ab linked to a mutated IL-2 variant (IL-2v) with abolished binding to the high-affinity IL-2 receptor, thus stimulating NK cells without induction of Treg. Effects of FAP-IL-2v on NK cells, Treg and ADCC mediated by DB, as well as FAP expression in NB, were investigated by flow cytometry, calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay and RT-PCR analysis. Moreover, the impact of soluble factors released from tumor cells on FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was assessed. Finally, a combined immunotherapy with DB and FAP-IL-2v was evaluated using a resistant syngeneic murine NB model. Incubation of leukocytes with FAP-IL-2v enhanced DB-specific ADCC without induction of Treg. FAP expression on NB cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDCS) in tumor tissue was identified. A tumor-cell-dependent enhancement in FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was demonstrated. Combination with DB and FAP-IL-2v resulted in reduced tumor growth and improved survival. Analysis of tumor tissue revealed increased NK and cytotoxic T cell numbers and reduced Treg compared to controls. Our data show that FAP-IL-2v is a potent immunocytokine that augments the efficacy of DB against NB, providing a promising alternative to IL-2.
Simple Summary
The treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma patients with anti-GD2 antibodies has improved survival, and it is an established treatment strategy; however, many patients still experience a late relapse. One disadvantage of passive immunotherapy is the absence of a memory response. Therefore, developing an active immunotherapy leading to a sustained immune response may provide a solution and prevent the occurrence of late relapses following anti-GD2 antibody therapy. Here, we describe the first-in-man compassionate use of the ganglidiomab vaccine following passive immunotherapy with an anti-GD2 antibody (dinutuximab beta) in seven neuroblastoma patients. The vaccine was well-tolerated, and all patients not pre-treated by haploidentical transplantation developed vaccine-specific immune responses.
Abstract
(1) Background: High-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) is associated with a poor prognosis despite a multimodal high-intensity treatment regimen, including immunotherapy with anti-GD2 monoclonal antibodies (mAb). Here, we investigated the effects of an anti-idiotypic vaccine based on the mAb ganglidiomab that structurally mimics GD2. (2) Methods: Patients with HR-NB treated with anti-GD2 mAb dinutuximab beta and who achieved complete remission after frontline or salvage therapy were offered the vaccine (0.5 mg ganglidiomab adsorbed to Alhydrogel®). Side effects (CTCAE v4.03) and immune responses were determined on each visit. We also evaluated the time to relapse or progression until the last follow-up. (3) Results: Seven HR-NB patients (five frontlines, two relapsed) received 6–22 subcutaneous injections every two weeks. Six of the seven patients showed an immune response. The non-responding patient had a haploidentical stem cell transplantation as part of the previous treatment. No fever, pain, neuropathy, or toxicities ≥ grade 3 occurred during or post-treatment. All immunized patients did not experience relapses or progressions of their neuroblastoma. (4) Conclusions: This is the first-in-man use of the ganglidiomab vaccine, which was well-tolerated, and all patients not pre-treated by haploidentical transplantation developed vaccine-specific immune responses. These findings provide an important basis for the design of prospective clinical trials.
Jährlich erkranken in Deutschland etwa 130 Kinder neu an einem Neuroblastom. Mit einem Anteil von 7 % aller malignen Tumorerkrankungen im Kindesalter stellt es damit den häufigsten soliden extrakraniellen Tumor bei Kindern unter 15 Jahren dar. Leider ist zum Zeitpunkt der Erstdiagnose bereits jedes zweite Neuroblastom metastasiert und die Diagnose für fortgeschrittene Stadien noch immer besonders schlecht. Die Verbesserung von Lebenserwartung und -qualität dieser Patienten ist somit von großer Bedeutung und Gegenstand gegenwärtiger Forschung. In den letzten Jahren zeigten sich bereits große Erfolge auf dem Gebiet der Tumorimmunologie. Nach dem Prinzip der passiven Immunisierung wird der monoklonale Antikörper ch14.18/CHO (Dinutuximab beta) eingesetzt, welcher sich gegen das auf Neuroblastomzellen hoch exprimierte tumorassoziierte Antigen GD2 richtet. Die Wirksamkeit wurde in mehreren klinischen Studien bestätigt, zeigte jedoch auch erhebliche Nebenwirkungen dieser Therapie, insbesondere in Form neuropathischer Schmerzen.
Diese Arbeit zeigt die Ergebnisse eines unizentrisch an der Universität Greifswald durchgeführten Programms mit dem Ziel, die Nebenwirkungen durch eine veränderte Applikationsart zu senken. Verabreicht wurde eine verlängerte kontinuierliche Infusion von ch14.18/CHO in Kombination mit subkutaner Applikation von Proleukin (IL-2) und oraler Isotretinoin (13-cis-RA)-Gabe. Gemessen an der Schmerzintensität und dem Morphinbedarf der Patienten konnte ein niedriges Schmerzniveau mit stark rückläufiger Tendenz im Therapieverlauf beobachtet werden. Im Studienvergleich war eine Schmerzreduktion messbar. Es ließen sich ein Anstieg der Antikörper- und Effektorzellspiegel sowie eine korrelierende anti-tumorale Aktivität über den gesamten Behandlungszeitraum von sechs Monaten verzeichnen. Hohe zytolytische Werte in der ADCC in vitro korrelierten mit einem verbesserten Outcome der Patienten in Form eines längeren EFS und OS. In Zusammenschau der Daten bestätigt dies eine effektive Immuntherapie bei Langzeitinfusion des Antikörpers. Bei kontinuierlicher Infusion des Antikörpers und niedrigen Nebenwirkungen ist in Zukunft eine ambulante Therapie mit gesteigerter Lebensqualität für die Patienten denkbar.
Haploidentical stem cell transplantation (haplo SCT) in Stage IV neuroblastoma relapsed patients has been proven efficacious, while immunotherapy utilizing the anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta has become a standard treatment for neuroblastoma. The combinatorial therapy of haplo SCT and dinutuximab may potentiate the efficacy of the immunotherapy. To gain further understanding of the synergistic effects, functional immunomonitoring was assessed during the clinical trial CH14.18 1021 Antibody and IL2 After haplo SCT in Children with Relapsed Neuroblastoma (NCT02258815). Rapid immune reconstitution of the lymphoid compartment was confirmed, with clinically relevant dinutuximab serum levels found in all patients over the course of treatment. Only one patient developed human anti-chimeric antibodies (HACAs). In-patient monitoring revealed highly functional NK cell posttransplant capable of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Degranulation of NK cell subsets revealed a significant response increased by dinutuximab. This was irrespective of the KIR receptor–ligand constellation within the NK subsets, defined by the major KIR receptors CD158a, CD158b, and CD158e. Moreover, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) was shown to be an extremely potent effector-cell independent mechanism of tumor cell lysis, with a clear positive correlation to GD2 expression on the cancer cells as well as to the dinutuximab concentrations. The ex vivo testing of patient-derived effector cells and the sera collected during dinutuximab therapy demonstrated both high functionality of the newly established lymphoid immune compartment and provided confidence that the antibody dosing regimen was sufficient over the duration of the dinutuximab therapy (up to nine cycles in a 9-month period). During the course of the dinutuximab therapy, proinflammatory cytokines and markers (sIL2R, TNFa, IL6, and C reactive protein) were significantly elevated indicating a strong anti-GD2 immune response. No impact of FcGR polymorphism on event-free and overall survival was found. Collectively, this study has shown that in-patient functional immunomonitoring is feasible and valuable in contributing to the understanding of anti-cancer combinatorial treatments such as haplo SCT and antibody immunotherapy.
Patients with high-risk neuroblastoma treated with continuous long-term infusion of anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta (DB) in combination with IL-2 show an acceptable safety profile. Here, we compared treatment tolerance with and without IL-2. Ninety-nine patients with high-risk neuroblastoma received up to five cycles of DB given as long-term infusion (10 mg/m2/d, 100 mg/m2; per cycle) with IL-2 (53 patients; regimen A; 6 × 106 IU/m2/d; 60 × 106 IU/m2/cycle) and without IL-2 (46 patients; regimen B) in a single-center compassionate use program. Clinical parameters (body temperature, vital signs, Lansky performance score), laboratory values [C-reactive protein, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-18 (cycle 1)], and requirement of i.v. co-medication (e.g., morphine, metamizole) were systematically assessed. Patients with stable clinical parameters and that did not require co-medication were defined as potential “outpatient candidates.” Patients showed higher levels of body temperature and CRP in regimen A compared to B. However, IL-6 serum concentrations were similar in pts of both cohorts in the first cycle. Patients receiving regimen B showed a shorter time to achieve normal vital parameters and required less co-medication compared to patients in regimen A that resulted in a shorter median time period to discharge and to achieve a potential outpatient status (6d regimen A and 3–5d regimen B after start of antibody infusion, respectively). This study shows that omitting IL-2 from immunotherapy with DB allows reduced co-medication and hospitalization time and therefore results in improved quality of life in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma.
Neuroblastoma (NB) is an aggressive, poorly immunogenic tumor in childhood. Therapy for high-risk NB remains challenging. Immunotherapy with anti-GD 2 antibody ch14.18/CHO effectively prolongs the survival of NB patients.
Killer-immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR)/human leucocyte antigen (HLA) mismatch and Fc gamma receptor (FCGR) polymorphisms are reported to affect antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) induced by monoclonal antibodies. To determine whether FCGR polymorphisms and KIR/HLA mismatch are associated with the survival following ch14.18-based immunotherapy, genotyping methods that allow for genotype determination of FCGR2A, -3A, -3B, KIR2DL1, 2DL2, 2DL3, and 3DL1 have been established and applied to the analysis of 53 NB patients treated with ch14.18/CHO.
High-affinity polymorphisms of FCGR2A (H131) and FCGR3A (V158) were associated with improved survival. Importantly, patients displaying both the FCGR3A-V158 and FCGR2A-H131 alleles exhibited significantly improved event-free survival. No association was found between KIR/HLA genotypes or FCGR3B alleles and patients’ survival in our patient cohort.
In conclusion, impact of FCGR2A and -3A genotypes in response to ch14.18/CHO immunotherapy in combination with IL2 was demonstrated. FCGR2A and -3A might therefore provide a prognostic marker when conducting ch14.18/CHO-based immunotherapy.
Aktive Immunisierung mit GD2-Peptidmimotopen und anti-Idiotypen zur Immuntherapie beim Neuroblastom
(2013)
Das Neuroblastom ist der häufigste solide, extrakranielle Tumor des Kindesalters. Die schlechte Prognose von Patienten mit fortgeschrittener Erkrankung macht die Entwicklung neuer Therapiemodalitäten zu einem der wichtigsten Forschungsziele auf dem Gebiet der pädiatrischen Onkologie. Durch die passive Immuntherapie mit Antikörpern gegen das Glykolipidantigen Disialogangliosid GD2, welches von Neuroblastomen hoch exprimiert wird, konnte die Überlebensrate von Hochrisiko-Neuroblastompatienten zuletzt deutlich verbessert werden. Dennoch ist die passive Immuntherapie mit Nachteilen verbunden: Das Ausbleiben einer langfristigen Immunität erfordert repetitive Antikörpergaben mit akuten antikörperbezogenen Nebenwirkungen und dem Risiko, eine humorale Immunreaktion gegen den applizierten Antikörper zu entwickeln. Eine aktive GD2-gerichtete Immunisierung erscheint daher vorteilhaft. Die schwache Immunogenität des Glykolipids ist hierbei ein wesentliches Hindernis bei der Induktion einer effektiven GD2-gerichteten Immunität. Dieses Problem kann durch die Verwendung von Proteinantigenen wie GD2-Peptidmimotopen oder anti-Idiotyp-Antikörpern umgangen werden. Zunächst beschreibt diese Arbeit die Charakterisierung von zwei GD2-Peptidmimotopen („MA“ und „MD“), welche durch Screening von Phagenbibliotheken identifiziert wurden, sowie den Nachweis der erfolgreichen Induktion einer neuroblastomspezifischen Immunität im syngenen Mausmodell. In einem zweiten Schritt wurden die Peptidmimotope durch Austausch einzelner Aminosäuren in ihrer Affinität zu GD2-Antikörpern optimiert und das so geschaffene neue Peptidmimotop („C3“) im Hinblick auf die Induktion einer humoralen GD2-spezifischen Immunität erfolgreich im Mausmodell getestet. Zudem gelang es, einen neuen monoklonalen GD2-anti-Idiotyp-Antikörper („Ganglidiomab“) zu erzeugen. Ganglidiomab weist typische Eigenschaften eines anti-Idiotypen wie die kompetitive Inhibition der Bindung von GD2 an GD2-Antikörper auf und erwies sich im Mausmodell als wirksam bei der Induktion einer GD2-spezifischen humoralen Immunantwort. Das optimierte GD2-Peptidmimotop C3 und der neue monoklonale GD2-Anti-Idiotyp Ganglidiomab bilden somit eine Basis zur weiteren Entwicklung einer wirksamen und sicheren Vakzine zur Behandlung von Hochrisiko-Neuroblastompatienten.