Open Access

Culicidae, auch bekannt als Stechmücken, sind medizinisch bedeutsame Zweiflügler, die als Vektoren eine Vielzahl von Krankheitserregern auf Menschen und Tiere übertragen können. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich einerseits mit der Verbreitung von zwei seltenen Stechmückenarten, welche im Rahmen eines Monitoringprojekts gefangen wurden, und andererseits mit der Ökologie der Asiatischen Tigermücke. Bei allen Arten handelt es sich um thermophile Arten, bei denen angenommen wird, dass der Klimawandel ihre Verbreitung Richtung Norden begünstigt. Dies konnte vor allem für die Art Uranotaenia unguiculata gezeigt werden, da sie an zwei Orten gefunden wurde, die ausgesprochen weit entfernt waren von der einzigen jemals zuvor beschriebenen Nachweisstelle in Deutschland. Obwohl an beiden Fundorten jeweils nur ein einziges adultes Individuum gefangen werden konnte, ergab eine Beprobung von potenziellen Bruthabitaten im darauffolgenden Jahr, dass lokale Reproduktion stattfand. Somit konnte eine ausschließliche Verschleppung von adulten Einzelindividuen weitgehend ausgeschlossen werden. Eine weitere seltene Stechmückenart, die im Zuge des Monitorings nachgewiesen werden konnte, ist Anopheles algeriensis. Diese Art wurde an drei Standorten gefangen, an zwei von ihnen mit einer viel höheren Abundanz als Ur. unguiculata. Den ökologischen Teil dieser Arbeit machen Feld- und Laborexperimente mit Aedes albopictus aus. Sie dienten der Ermittlung der Kältetoleranz der Eier dieser Spezies, die als Vektor für eine Vielzahl von Viren und andere Pathogene gilt. Drei verschiedene Stämme, die aus tropischen, subtropischen und gemäßigten Breiten stammen, wurden niedrigen Temperaturen, welche typischerweise im Winter herrschen, unter Feld- und Laborbedingungen ausgesetzt. Die Experimente belegen, dass alle untersuchten Stämme prinzipiell einen Winter mit einem Temperaturminimum von –8 °C im Feld überleben konnten. Die Laborexperimente konnten hingegen zeigen, dass alle Stämme in der Lage waren, Temperaturen von –10 °C für eine gewisse Zeit zu ertragen. Die Überlebensfähigkeit schwankte je nach Stamm zwischen 2 und 20 Tagen. Dabei hatte der Stamm aus den gemäßigten Breiten eine Kältetoleranz, die nur wenig höher lag als die des subtropischen Stammes. Der tropische Stamm hingegen besaß die geringste Toleranz gegenüber niedrigen Temperaturen, sowohl in den Freiland- als auch in den Laborexperimenten. Diapausierende Eier zeigen nur eine höhere Kältetoleranz nahe den physiologischen Grenzen der jeweiligen Stämme. Weiterhin konnte festgestellt werden, dass Eier unter fluktuierenden Temperaturen eine bestimmte Minimaltemperatur länger aushalten konnten als unter konstanten Temperaturen. Somit zeigen beide Experimente, dass gewisse Stämme von Ae. albopictus eine sehr hohe Toleranz gegenüber niedrigen Temperaturen haben. Das macht es sehr wahrscheinlich, dass diese invasive Art Winter in Deutschland oder anderen mitteleuropäischen Ländern überleben und ihre Ausbreitung weiter fortschreiten werden. Diese Entwicklung wird epidemiologische Auswirkungen auf die Human- und Veterinärmedizin haben.

Organisms often employ ecophysiological strategies to exploit environmental conditions and ensure bio-energetic success. However, the many complexities involved in the differential expression and flexibility of these strategies are rarely fully understood. Therefore, for the first time, using a three-part cross-disciplinary laboratory experimental analysis, we investigated the diversity and plasticity of photoresponsive traits employed by one family of environmentally contrasting, ecologically important phytoflagellates. The results demonstrated an extensive inter-species phenotypic diversity of behavioural, physiological, and compositional photoresponse across the Chlamydomonadaceae, and a multifaceted intra-species phenotypic plasticity, involving a broad range of beneficial photoacclimation strategies, often attributable to environmental predisposition and phylogenetic differentiation. Deceptively diverse and sophisticated strong (population and individual cell) behavioural photoresponses were observed, with divergence from a general preference for low light (and flexibility) dictated by intra-familial differences in typical habitat (salinity and trophy) and phylogeny. Notably, contrasting lower, narrow, and flexible compared with higher, broad, and stable preferences were observed in freshwater vs. brackish and marine species. Complex diversity and plasticity in physiological and compositional photoresponses were also discovered. Metabolic characteristics (such as growth rates, respiratory costs and photosynthetic capacity, efficiency, compensation and saturation points) varied elaborately with species, typical habitat (often varying more in eutrophic species, such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii), and culture irradiance (adjusting to optimise energy acquisition and suggesting some propensity for low light). Considerable variations in intracellular pigment and biochemical composition were also recorded. Photosynthetic and accessory pigments (such as chlorophyll a, xanthophyll-cycle components, chlorophyll a:b and chlorophyll a:carotenoid ratios, fatty acid content and saturation ratios) varied with phylogeny and typical habitat (to attune photosystem ratios in different trophic conditions and to optimise shade adaptation, photoprotection, and thylakoid architecture, particularly in freshwater environments), and changed with irradiance (as reaction and harvesting centres adjusted to modulate absorption and quantum yield). The complex, concomitant nature of the results also advocated an integrative approach in future investigations. Overall, these nuanced, diverse, and flexible photoresponsive traits will greatly contribute to the functional ecology of these organisms, addressing environmental heterogeneity and potentially shaping individual fitness, spatial and temporal distribution, prevalence, and ecosystem dynamics.

Das alpha-Toxin (Hla) von Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) spielt eine bedeutende Rolle bei S. aureus-induzierten Pneumonien. Hla bindet zunächst als Monomer an die Plasmamembran eukaryotischer Wirtszellen und assoziiert sich zu heptameren Transmembranporen. Die Sensitivität gegenüber dem Toxin ist bei verschiedenen Atemwegsepithelzelllinien unterschiedlich ausgeprägt. Die Gründe dafür sind bis jetzt nicht vollends verstanden. Mögliche Faktoren, die einen Einfluss auf die Hla-Sensitivität der Zellen haben, könnten die Rezeptordichte und Effizienz der Porenbildung sowie die Entsorgung von Poren aus der PM durch Internalisierung und Degradation (lysosomal, proteasomal) oder durch Ausschleusung von extrazellulären Vesikeln in den Extrazellularraum sein. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Bedeutung der Faktoren, die einen Einfluss auf die Toxin-Sensitivität von Wirtszellen haben könnten, am Beispiel der drei Atemwegs-Modellzelllinien 16HBE14o-, S9 sowie A549 genauer zu untersuchen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Menge an rHla, allem voran die Abundanz der Heptamere in der Plasmamembran der Zellen, einen starken Einfluss auf die Toxinsensitivität (gemessen an der Rate parazellulärer Lückenbildung in den Zellverbänden) der Zelllinien hat. Diese Ergebnisse korrelierten am besten mit der Häufigkeit des potenziellen Hla-Rezeptors ADAM10 in der Plasmamembran der drei Zelltypen, aber auch das Phospholipid Sphingomyelin scheint ebenfalls einen Einfluss auf die Hla-Sensitivität der Zellen zu haben. Die Zellgröße, der für die Hla-Vorpore stabilisierende Faktor Caveolin-1, Integrin α5β1 als weiterer möglicher Hla-Rezeptor und die Lipide Phosphatidylcholin/-serin zeigten dagegen keine Korrelation zur Hla-Sensitivität der drei Atemwegsepithelzelllinien. Das Lipid Phosphatidylethanolamin wies zwar das gleiche Muster wie das des Sphingomyelins bei den Zelllinien auf, jedoch muss eine mögliche Bedeutung des Lipids in der Hla-Bindung und/oder -Heptamerisierung erst noch untersucht werden. Untersuchungen der Internalisierung des Toxins zeigten, dass von den drei Atemwegsepithelzelllinien nur die S9-Zellen in der Lage waren die rHla-Heptamere effizient zu internalisieren. Dabei konnte unter Verwendung der rHla-Mutante rH35L, die keine Transmembranpore ausbilden kann, gezeigt werden, dass die Internalisierung der Toxin-Heptamere wahrscheinlich Poren-unabhängig geschieht. Durch die Überprüfung des rHla-Abbaus in S9-Zellen nach Inhibierung der lysosomalen oder proteasomalen Proteindegradation konnte ein Abbau des Toxins über das Proteasom ausgeschlossen werden. Dagegen scheint der lysosomale Weg von entscheidender Bedeutung für die Hla-Heptamer-Degradation zu sein. Eine saure Hydrolyse der Protease-resistenten Toxin-Heptamere in rHla-Monomere konnte allerdings nicht nachgewiesen werden und scheint somit bei dem lysosomalen Abbau keine Rolle zu spielen. Präparierte extrazelluläre Vesikel von rHla-behandelten S9-Zellen zeigten zudem, dass eine Entsorgung des Toxins über Exosomen und/oder Mikrovesikel ebenfalls bei diesen Zellen möglich zu sein scheint. Der primäre Weg der Hla-Prozessierung ist bei den S9-Zellen dennoch der lysosomale Abbau.

1. Anthropogenic climate change is a substantial threat to global biodiversity. It may affect insect herbivores directly and indirectly. Indirect effects are, among others, mediated by climate‐change induced variation in host‐plant quality. Although being potentially important, little is known on the significance of such indirect effects and on interactions among environmental stressors in plant–herbivore interactions. 2. To simulate the potential impact of climate change, we investigated effects of host‐plant temperature and soil moisture on herbivore performance in the tropical butterfly Bicyclus anynana under laboratory conditions. 3. Maize grown at high temperatures or under wet conditions reduced herbivore performance, indicated by decreased body mass, storage reserves, phenoloxidase activity, and increased development time. Temperature and soil moisture acted largely independent of one another. Detrimental effects of the high plant temperature were restricted to males, indicating a higher vulnerability of this sex to environmental stress. 4. In nature, B. anynana might be threatened by increasing temperatures during the wet season negatively affecting host‐plant quality. Our study shows that herbivore performance can be substantially affected by indirect effects mediated through changes in host‐plant quality, which deserves more attention in the current era of global climate change.

Innerhalb der Proteinfamilien der Antistasine und der Hirudine konnte ein breites Spektrum von Faktoren identifiziert werden. Obwohl die Funktionen dieser Hirudin-ähnlichen Faktoren (HLF) aus Hirudo sp. und Hirudinaria manillensis, sowie des Antistasin-ähnlichen Faktors (ALF) aus Hirudo verbana, bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt unbekannt waren, könnte der hohe Grad an Übereinstimmung zu den Antistasinen bzw. Hirudinen bezüglich ihrer Genstruktur und Aminosäuresequenzen auf eine Anpassung der Blutegel auf ihr Wirtsspektrum hindeuten. So ist es mit der funktionellen Charakterisierung von rekombinanten Formen dieser Speicheldrüsenproteine möglich, die Frage zu beantworten, weshalb der Blutegel nicht nur einen potenten Inhibitor für die jeweiligen Faktoren der Blutgerinnung in seinen Speicheldrüsen sekretiert, sondern wohl möglich eine Vielzahl variierender Faktoren vorliegen.

Global climate change is omnipresent all over the world and is affecting and challenging organisms in various ways. Species either have to adapt to the changing environmental conditions or move to new habitats in order to avoid extinction. Possible ways for an organism to react can be dispersal, phenotypic plasticity, genetic adaptation or a combination of these factors. Among the various consequences of climate change, especially changes in temperature affect plenty of species. In ectotherms, the body temperature and associated mechanisms are strongly dependent on environmental conditions. The aim of this work was to investigate the mechanisms underlying adaptation to thermal variation and heat stress in the widespread butterfly species <i>Pieris napi<i>. Focusing on indicators of individual condition, including morphology, physiology and life history traits, the purpose was to specify whether the species’ responses to temperature variation have a plastic or genetic basis. In the first experiment, phenotypic variation along a latitudinal and altitudinal cline was investigated. Yellow reflectance of wings was negatively correlated with wing melanisation, providing evidence for a trade-off between a sexually selected trait (yellow color) and thermoregulation (black color). Body size decreased with increasing latitude and led to the assumption that warmer conditions are more beneficial for <i>P. napi<i> than cooler ones. An increased flight performance at higher altitudes but not latitudes may indicate stronger challenges for flight activity in high-altitude environments. The second experiment focused on clinal variation and plasticity in morphology, physiology and life history in F1-generation individuals reared in captivity at different temperatures. It could be shown that individuals from cooler environments were less heat-tolerant, had a longer development but were nevertheless smaller, and had more melanised wings. These differences were genetically-based. Furthermore, it could be shown that a higher developmental temperature speeded up development, reduced body size, potential metabolic activity, and wing melanisation but increased heat tolerance, documenting plastic responses. In a third experiment, we examined physiological responses to heat stress. A transcriptome analysis revealed an upregulation in molecular chaperones under hot conditions, whereas antioxidant responses and oxidative damage remained unaffected. The antioxidant glutathione (GSH) though was reduced under both cold and hot conditions. Interestingly, Swedish individuals were characterized by higher levels of GSH, lower early fecundity, and lower larval growth rates compared with German or Italian populations, suggesting a ‘pace-of-life’ syndrome. Thus, the individuals from warmer regions show the opposite pattern with a lower investment into maintenance but a faster lifestyle. In summary, we found clinal variation in body size, growth rates and concomitant development time, wing aspect ratio, wing melanisation and heat tolerance. The effects of high developmental temperature very likely reflect adaptive phenotypic plasticity. When speeding up development; heat tolerance is increasing while body size, potential metabolic activity and wing melanisation are decreasing. Overall, body size of <i>P. napi<i> individuals decreased from south to north while the melanisation of the wings increased. Furthermore, we found a connection between increased wing melanisation and decreased yellow reflectance, most likely caused by a trade-off between the two. We could confirm that <i>P. napi<i> individuals from warmer environments were more heat-tolerant and larger than individuals from colder environments. Due to increasing temperatures and heat waves becoming more frequent in the future, being able to cope with such conditions will be advantageous. As warmer conditions had positive effects on individual development, <i>P. napi<i> may benefit from global warming, but its association with moist habitats suggests negative consequences of climate change. We could also reveal pronounced plastic and genetic responses in <i>P. napi<i>, which may indicate high adaptive capacities. Thus, increasing temperature may not be too problematic for the species, as it seems to be rather well equipped to deal with such challenges. However, as climate change entails changes in precipitation / humidity along with temperature changes, such issues need further investigation.

In a changing world, phytoplankton communities face a large variety of challenges including altered light regimes. These alterations are caused by more pronounced stratification due to rising temperatures, enhanced eutrophication, and browning of lakes. Community responses toward these effects can emerge as alterations in physiology, biomass, biochemical composition, or diversity. In this study, we addressed the combined effects of changes in light and nutrient conditions on community responses. In particular, we investigated how light intensity and variability under two nutrient conditions influence (1) fast responses such as adjustments in photosynthesis, (2) intermediate responses such as pigment adaptation and (3) slow responses such as changes in community biomass and species composition. Therefore, we exposed communities consisting of five phytoplankton species belonging to different taxonomic groups to two constant and two variable light intensity treatments combined with two levels of phosphorus supply. The tested phytoplankton communities exhibited increased fast reactions of photosynthetic processes to light variability and light intensity. The adjustment of their light harvesting mechanisms via community pigment composition was not affected by light intensity, variability, or nutrient supply. However, pigment specific effects of light intensity, light variability, and nutrient supply on the proportion of the respective pigments were detected. Biomass was positively affected by higher light intensity and nutrient concentrations while the direction of the effect of variability was modulated by light intensity. Light variability had a negative impact on biomass at low, but a positive impact at high light intensity. The effects on community composition were species specific. Generally, the proportion of green algae was higher under high light intensity, whereas the cyanobacterium performed better under low light conditions. In addition to that, the diatom and the cryptophyte performed better with high nutrient supply while the green algae as well as the cyanobacterium performed better at low nutrient conditions. This shows that light intensity, light variability, and nutrient supply interactively affect communities. Furthermore, the responses are highly species and pigment specific, thus to clarify the effects of climate change a deeper understanding of the effects of light variability and species interactions within communities is important.

Abstract While chemical communication has been investigated intensively in vertebrates and insects, relatively little is known about the sensory world of spiders despite the fact that chemical cues play a key role in natural and sexual selection in this group. In insects, olfaction is performed with wall–pore and gustation with tip‐pore sensilla. Since spiders possess tip‐pore sensilla only, it is unclear how they accomplish olfaction. We scrutinized the ultrastructure of the trichoid tip‐pore sensilla of the orb weaving spider Argiope bruennichi—a common Palearctic species the males of which are known to be attracted by female sex pheromone. We also investigated the congener Argiope blanda. We examined whether the tip‐pore sensilla differ in ultrastructure depending on sex and their position on the tarsi of walking legs of which only the distal parts are in contact with the substrate. We hypothesized as yet undetected differences in ultrastructure that suggest gustatory versus olfactory functions. All tarsal tip‐pore sensilla of both species exhibit characters typical of contact‐chemoreceptors, such as (a) the presence of a pore at the tip of the sensillum shaft, (b) 2–22 uniciliated chemoreceptive cells with elongated and unbranched dendrites reaching up to the tip‐pore, (c) two integrated mechanoreceptive cells with short dendrites and large tubular bodies attached to the sensillum shaft's base, and (d) a socket structure with suspension fibres that render the sensillum shaft flexible. The newly found third mechanoreceptive cell attached to the proximal end of the peridendritic shaft cylinder by a small tubular body was likely overlooked in previous studies. The organization of tarsal tip‐pore sensilla did not differ depending on the position on the tarsus nor between the sexes. As no wall‐pore sensilla were detected, we discuss the probability that a single type of sensillum performs both gustation and olfaction in spiders.

Abstract Understanding how organisms adapt to complex environments is a central goal of evolutionary biology and ecology. This issue is of special interest in the current era of rapidly changing climatic conditions. Here, we investigate clinal variation and plastic responses in life history, morphology and physiology in the butterfly Pieris napi along a pan‐European gradient by exposing butterflies raised in captivity to different temperatures. We found clinal variation in body size, growth rates and concomitant development time, wing aspect ratio, wing melanization and heat tolerance. Individuals from warmer environments were more heat‐tolerant and had less melanised wings and a shorter development, but still they were larger than individuals from cooler environments. These findings suggest selection for rapid growth in the warmth and for wing melanization in the cold, and thus fine‐tuned genetic adaptation to local climates. Irrespective of the origin of butterflies, the effects of higher developmental temperature were largely as expected, speeding up development; reducing body size, potential metabolic activity and wing melanization; while increasing heat tolerance. At least in part, these patterns likely reflect adaptive phenotypic plasticity. In summary, our study revealed pronounced plastic and genetic responses, which may indicate high adaptive capacities in our study organism. Whether this may help such species, though, to deal with current climate change needs further investigation, as clinal patterns have typically evolved over long periods.

Abstract Improving our sparse knowledge of the mating and reproductive behaviour of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum Burchell, 1817) is essential for the effective conservation of this iconic species. By combining morphological, physiological and habitat data with paternity assignments of 104 known mother–offspring pairs collected over a period of 13 years, we provide the most comprehensive analysis of the mating system in this species. We show that while the overall mating system was promiscuous, and both males and females produced more offspring when mating with several partners, half of all females with multiple offspring were monogamous. Additionally, we find that mating and reproductive success varied significantly among territorial males in two independent sets of males. In females, however, variation in the mating and the reproductive success was not larger than expected by random demographic fluctuations. Horn size, testosterone metabolite concentration, territory size, habitat openness and the volume of preferred food within the territory did not seem to influence male mating or reproductive success. Moreover, there was no sign of inbreeding avoidance: females tended to mate more frequently with closely related males, and one daughter produced a progeny with her father. The lack of inbreeding avoidance, in combination with the skew in male reproductive success, the partial monogamy in females and the territorial‐based mating system, jeopardizes the already low genetic variation in the species. Considering that the majority of populations are restricted to fenced reserves and private farms, we recommend taking preventive measures that aim to reduce inbreeding in white rhinoceros. A video abstract can be viewed here.

Abstract Two decades after the discovery of adult‐born neurons in the brains of decapod crustaceans, the deutocerebral proliferative system (DPS) producing these neural lineages has become a model of adult neurogenesis in invertebrates. Studies on crayfish have provided substantial insights into the anatomy, cellular dynamics, and regulation of the DPS. Contrary to traditional thinking, recent evidence suggests that the neurogenic niche in the crayfish DPS lacks self‐renewing stem cells, its cell pool being instead sustained via integration of hemocytes generated by the innate immune system. Here, we investigated the origin, division and migration patterns of the adult‐born neural progenitor (NP) lineages in detail. We show that the niche cell pool is not only replenished by hemocyte integration but also by limited numbers of symmetric cell divisions with some characteristics reminiscent of interkinetic nuclear migration. Once specified in the niche, first generation NPs act as transit‐amplifying intermediate NPs that eventually exit and produce multicellular clones as they move along migratory streams toward target brain areas. Different clones may migrate simultaneously in the streams but occupy separate tracks and show spatio‐temporally flexible division patterns. Based on this, we propose an extended DPS model that emphasizes structural similarities to pseudostratified neuroepithelia in other arthropods and vertebrates. This model includes hemocyte integration and intrinsic cell proliferation to synergistically counteract niche cell pool depletion during the animal's lifespan. Further, we discuss parallels to recent findings on mammalian adult neurogenesis, as both systems seem to exhibit a similar decoupling of proliferative replenishment divisions and consuming neurogenic divisions.

Bats belong to the most gregarious and diverse mammals with highly complex social behaviors. Despite extensive research on their ecology and social behavior in some bat species, gained insights are restricted to only few of the more than 1300 species. In the recent past, bats have also become a central topic of a different branch of research: Since the 1990s bats came to the fore of virologists and immunologists due to the bats’ apparent importance as reservoir hosts and vectors of several (mostly tropical) diseases. While this research is focused mainly on emerging infectious diseases linked to bats, and their zoonotic potential, little has been invested regarding the link between disease transmission and bat social systems. In my work, I aim at filling this gap by merging automated daily roosting observations, social network analysis, and a virological screening in Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri). In a collaborative approach, my co-workers and I analyzed the social structure of individually marked Natterer’s bats, their astrovirus detection rate and transmission pathways within their colony, as well as roosting interactions between different co-occurring con- and heterospecific bat colonies. We discovered Natterer’s bats to display a very divergent social network structure that contradicts the findings of previous studies on large fission-fusion groups. Contrary to the modular social network structure found in e.g. primates or other bats species, the social network of Natterer’s bats consists of only one highly interconnected community. Moreover, although the close proximity between bat hosts in the colony should strongly promote direct transmission, we found indications that astrovirus infections follow at least partly an indirect transmission pathway via contaminated roost use. Lastly, our results prove that co-occurring con- and heterospecific bat colonies, e.g. as in this study Natterer’s bats, brown long-eared bats and Bechstein’s bats, can influence each other in their roost use by avoiding conspecific roosts and by being attracted towards those of heterospecifics. This holds implication for the transmission of parasites and pathogens within and between different colonies with opportunities for spillovers. To conclude, this multidisciplinary study led to valuable insights in the hitherto hidden mechanisms within and among bat colonies.

Lebenslang persistierende Neurogenese ist ein fester Bestandteil des olfaktorischen Systems bei reptanten Dekapoden („Panzerkrebse“; lat. reptans – kriechend; griech. deca – zehn, podes – Füße). Dabei generiert das deutocerebrale proliferative System über die Larvalphase hinaus neue Neuronen, die in die bestehenden neuronalen Netzwerke der deutocerebralen chemosensorischen Loben (auch „olfaktorische Loben“) integriert werden. Während in zahlreichen Studien die phänotypische Ausprägung, der zelluläre Mechanismus zur Umsetzung adulter Neurogenese und deren regulierende Faktoren umfassend untersucht und zum Teil kontrovers diskutiert wurden, ist über die phylogenetische Verbreitung in anderen Taxa der Malacostraca („Höhere Krebse“; griech. malakos – weich, ostrakon – Schale) nichts bekannt. Daher wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit verschiedene Vertreter aus Malakostrakentaxa mit unterschiedlicher phylogenetischer Position untersucht und unter evolutionären Aspekten diskutiert. Wie gezeigt werden konnte, ist adulte Neurogenese vermutlich ein plesiomorphes Merkmal der Eumalacostraca, welches in Vertretern der Euphausiacea („Leuchtgarnelen“; griech. phausis – Leuchten) und Peracarida („Ranzenkrebse“; griech. pera – Ranzen, karides – kleine Seekrebse) reduziert wurde. In Abhängigkeit von der zugrunde gelegten Verwandtschaftshypothese ist die Reduktion der persistierenden Neurogenese entweder mehrfach unabhängig (konvergent) erfolgt oder ein apomorphes Merkmal eines Monophylums aus Euphausiacea und Peracarida. Dagegen ist innerhalb der Decapoda eine Ausdehnung und strukturelle Erweiterung des deutocerebralen proliferativen Systems feststellbar. Um einen möglichen Zusammenhang zur Komplexität und Bedeutung des olfaktorischen Systems zu überprüfen, wurden zusätzlich die neuroanatomischen Merkmale von Vertretern der Decapoda und der Peracarida (am Beispiel der Amphipoda) vergleichend betrachtet. Dabei konnte innerhalb der Decapoda eine Korrelation zwischen der Entwicklung des deutocerebralen proliferativen Systems und der Evolution des akzessorischen Lobus bei Vertretern der Reptantia sowie dessen Reduktion in der Gruppe der Meiura, zu denen die Vertreter der Brachyura („Echte Krabben“; griech. brachys – kurz, oura – Schwanz) und Anomura („Mittelkrebse“; griech. anomalos – ungleich) gehören, festgestellt werden. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurden Vermutungen über die im Adultus neu generierten Neuronenklassen und somit über die Funktion adulter Neurogenese aufgestellt. In allen anderen untersuchten Taxa der Malacostraca konnte dagegen keine Korrelation mit der Komplexität des olfaktorischen Systems festgestellt werden.

The present work focusses on the mosquito populations of two zoological gardens in Germany with the aim to better understand mosquito biology of native species and to contribute to a greater awareness of mosquito and mosquito-borne disease agent surveillance in zoos. For this purpose, data on species composition, blood meal patterns and mosquito-borne pathogens were analysed. The investigated zoological gardens differed not only in their sizes and animal stocks, but also in their surrounding environments. The 160 ha Tierpark Berlin is located in a densely populated urban area, while the 15 ha Zoological Garden Eberswalde is surrounded by forest. To gain an overview about the mosquito fauna of both zoos, adult specimens were caught by aspirating and EVS-trapping during the 2016 season. In addition, larval stages were collected from their breeding sites located in the zoo areas. In total, 2,257 mosquitoes were sampled, belonging to 20 taxa. Seasonal differences between the zoos were documented, both in terms of species composition and the relative abundance of mosquito species collected. As the studied zoos were located in the same climatic region and both locations provided similar breeding sites, differences in species composition were attributed to the entry of mosquitoes from surrounding landscapes. Influencing factors could have been the different sizes of the zoos and variations in the potential host animal populations. According to the vector potential of most frequently collected taxa in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde (Annulipes Group, Culiseta annulata), TAHV, USUV, WNV, filariae and avian malaria parasites appear to have the highest risk of being transmitted at this location. In the Tierpark Berlin, Aedes vexans was the most frequently collected mosquito species, suggesting a theoretical risk for the transmission of a broader spectrum of pathogens due to covered vector competences. Pathogens such as BATV, SINV, TAHV, USUV and filarial worms could be of major importance regarding transmission risk to zoo animals, as they had previously been found to circulate Germany. In addition, avian malaria parasites represent a considerable risk for susceptible exotic bird species in Berlin. Since the blood-feeding behaviour of vector-competent mosquito species has a major influence on the transmission of a mosquito-associated pathogen, the analysis of blood meal patterns is crucial to better understand vector-pathogen cycles. Therefore, blood meals of blood-fed mosquitoes caught in 2016 and 2017 by aspirating and EVS-trapping in the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde were analysed. The aim was to investigate to what extent native mosquito species accept exotic zoo animals, wild native animals and humans as blood hosts. In addition, it was examined whether the collected species are generalists or specialists when selecting vertebrates for blood feeding. A total of 405 blood-fed mosquitoes from 16 taxa were collected. The genetic analysis of blood meals identified 56 host species, which – in addition to humans – mainly originated from mammals of the zoo animal populations. In agreement with the previous study on the mosquito fauna of the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde, the analysis of blood meals also showed differences between the two zoos. In the smaller Zoological Garden Eberswalde, a higher number of blood-fed mosquitoes was collected than in the Tierpark Berlin, probably caused by a higher host density in Eberswalde, which may have led to an overall higher mosquito density. However, no differences between both zoos were observed with respect to the blood feeding behaviour of the analysed mosquito species: Mosquitoes of both locations were rather generalistic, although species could be grouped according their blood meals into 'amphibian', 'non-human mammal' and, ‘non-human mammal and human' feeding species. The more random selection of hosts could indicate a low probability of effective pathogen transmission by applying the 'dilution effect'. Notwithstanding, since wild animals have also been accepted as hosts, pathogen transmission by bridge vectors from one vertebrate group to another could be relevant in the sampled zoos. Adult mosquito specimens collected in 2016 and 2017 were screened for filarial nematodes, avian Haemosporidia and mosquito-borne viruses. Dirofilaria repens was detected in a mosquito from the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from Berlin and Eberswalde were tested positive for the nematode species S. tundra. Sindbis virus was found in a mosquito pool collected in the Tierpark Berlin, while no mosquito-associated viruses were detected in specimens collected in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from both zoos were positive for the haemosporidian parasites Haemoproteus sp. and Leucocytozoon sp., and one documentation was made for avian Plasmodium sp. in the Tierpark Berlin. The identified pathogens have the potential to cause disease in captive and wild animals, and some of them also in humans. Most of the mosquitoes tested positive had been collected in July, suggesting a high infection risk during this month. Since most pathogen detections were made from species belonging to the Cx. pipiens complex, species of this complex seem to be most relevant in the studied zoos when it comes to mosquito-borne pathogen transmission. Although mosquitoes are no proven vectors of most of the avian malaria parasite genera found, evidence for Haemoproteus sp. and Leucozytozoon sp. demonstrated a high prevalence of avian malaria parasites in the zoos. In summary, the results of the three studies indicate regional differences both in the mosquito species composition and in the occurrence of mosquito-borne pathogens. However, no differences were found between the mosquito communities of both zoos concerning their blood feeding behaviour, suggesting that the general behaviour of the insects is location-independent. Several potential disease agents were found in the collected mosquitoes, although not at high abundances. Whether these pathogens were found by chance in the two zoos or whether the particular zoo environment is a hot spot of arthropod-borne pathogens cannot be determined with the studies conducted. Nonetheless, it seems clear that zoological gardens are attractive to mosquito females not only in their search for breeding sites, but also when looking for blood hosts and places for mating or resting. These advantageous conditions also attract mosquito species that have their larval habitats outside the zoological gardens, which is why elimination of breeding sites on the zoo premises alone will not necessarily keep away all mosquitoes. A closer collaboration between zoological gardens and entomologists could be beneficial for both. Zoo officials could benefit from being able to identify potential arthropod vectors on the zoo grounds and receiving information on circulating arthropod-borne disease agents, as well as on the animal species susceptible to those. For entomologists, zoological gardens are ideal research locations, as they provide an environment with a high diversity of habitats and potential blood hosts for haematophagous arthropods in a confined space. Studying mosquito biology will become even more significant in the future, since in a world that is getting smaller, both potential vectors and pathogens are regularly introduced into areas where they did not occur before. Therefore, it would be desirable if more studies targeting ecological as well as infectiological aspects of vector species in zoological gardens in Germany were carried out.

Sexual selection favours traits that confer a competitive advantage in access to mates and to their gametes. This results in males evolving a wide array of adaptations that may be conflictual with female’s interests and even to collateral negative effects on female’s lifespan or reproductive success. Harmful male adaptations are diverse and can be extreme. For example, males of various species evolved adaptations that incur physical damage to the female during copulation, referred to as traumatic mating. Most of these adaptations provide males with a competitive fertilization advantage due to the injection of sperm or non-sperm compounds through the wound. In the spider taxonomical literature, alterations of external genital structures have been reported in females and may result from male inflicted damage during copulation. Contrarily to other cases of traumatic mating, the transfer of sperm or non-sperm compounds does not seem to be the target of selection for external female genital mutilation (EFGM) to evolve. Therefore, investigating EFGM may provide valuable information to extend our understanding of the evolution of harmful male adaptations. In this thesis, I explore this newly discovered phenomenon and combine empirical and theoretical approaches to investigate the causes and consequences of EFGM evolution from male and female perspectives. My findings suggest that EFGM is a natural phenomenon and is potentially widespread throughout spider taxa. I demonstrate the proximal mechanism by which the male copulatory organ mutilates the external female genitalia during genital coupling and show that the mutilation results in full monopolization of the female as mutilated females are unable to remate. Using a theoretical approach, I investigated the conditions for the evolution of EFGM. The model developed suggests that EFGM evolution is favoured for last male sperm precedence and for costs to females that can be relatively high as the male-male competition increases. I present the results of physiological measurements that suggest there is no physiological cost of genital mutilation resulting from healing and immune responses for the female. Finally, I report the results of a behavioural experiment that suggest that females have control over the mutilation and selectively allow or avoid mutilation. These findings suggest that EFGM benefits males by securing paternity, that males and females may have evolved to reduce the costs incurred by the female and that female choice may also play a role in EFGM evolution.

Climate change threatens marine ecosystems by simultaneous alterations and fluctuations in several abiotic factors like temperature, salinity and pH. Therefore, a strong ability to cope with varying environmental factors is indispensable for marine organisms. Especially, larvae of meroplanktonic species will be affected by predicted alterations in environmental conditions as planktonic larval stages are considered the most sensitive stages during life history (Anger 2001). The European shore crab Carcinus maenas, as an ecological key species, was chosen as a model species to investigate multiple stressor effects on early life history stages of marine meroplanktonic invertebrates. The life cycle of C. maenas is biphasic consisting of five pelagic larval stages (four zoeal and one megalopal stage), followed by benthic juvenile and adult phases. The metamorphic molt from the last zoeal stage to the semi-benthic Megalopa includes dramatic changes in ecology, habitat, behavior, feeding, morphology, and physiology. During life history, zoeal stages of C. maenas are of particular interest in the course of climate change as these stages are more vulnerable than the following developmental stages to alterations in abiotic factors. The aim of the present thesis was to develop an integrative view on effects of long-term exposure, from hatching to metamorphosis, to increased temperature and hypo-osmotic conditions on early life history stages of C. maenas. We wanted to gain insights into larval responses to climate driven environmental variables, more specifically, on how tolerance to low salinity is affected by increased temperatures. Consequently, the present study investigated the effect of long-term exposure to twelve different sub-lethal temperature and salinity combinations in an ecological relevant range on larval development of C. maenas. In a multidisciplinary approach, larval responses in performance (survival and developmental duration) and morphology were measured. Furthermore, analysis on larval ontogeny and organogenesis created the foundation for analysis of larval response to multiple stressors in anatomy. Results of the present thesis demonstrated that despite their different life-styles and external morphology, brachyuran larvae are smaller versions of their adults when regarding their inner organization: the adult bauplan unfolds from organ anlagen compressed into miniature organisms. In addition, they provide an overall picture of seemingly gradual organogenesis across larval development and the metamorphic molt, an insight that contrasts with the abrupt external morphological changes during metamorphosis. Gradual anatomical changes in e.g. osmoregulatory structures like gills and antennal glands allowed for ontogenetic shifts of tolerance to temperature and salinity during zoeal development and successive increase in osmo- and thermoregulatory capability. On the other hand, osmoregulatory structures as seen for adults were underdeveloped during zoeal development and therefore do not qualify for osmoregulatory function for these stages. This potentially explains the higher sensitivity of zoeae to hypo-osmotic conditions. Early life history stages of C. maenas were affected on all response levels by the tested multiple stressors. The interaction of temperature and salinity was of antagonistic type, resulting in general reduced stress for larval stages. Nevertheless, low salinity had a strong negative impact on survival, while increased temperature caused ann acceleration of development. Furthermore, the size of zoeae of C. maenas was driven by the interaction of temperature and salinity, with extreme conditions, causing diminished growth, thus resulting in smaller larval size. On the other hand, larval shape was only slightly affected by changes of abiotic factors. Volume of the digestive gland and the heart of larvae from long-term exposure to sub-lethal temperatures and salinities showed high variability. Larval responses were affected by the stressors intensities: moderately high temperatures lessened the negative effects of low salinities, while extreme high temperatures exceeded the ameliorating effect of temperature on stressful salinity conditions. On the other hand, the tolerance to temperature and salinity increased during larval development indicating an ontogenetic shift in response to multiple stressors with development. In addition, performance, morphology, and multiple stressor interaction showed intrapopulation variability among larvae hatched from different females, and between experimental periods. In conclusion, this study highlighted direct effects of abiotic factors on all investigated response levels in early life history stages of the meroplanktonic larvae of the invertebrate C. maenas. High mortality rates combined with higher sensitivity confirm that planktonic early life history stages are the bottleneck during life history of this species. Nevertheless, early life history stages of C. maenas had the ability to cope with wide ranges of changing environmental factors. The antagonism between temperature and salinity on larval development offers potential for early life history stages to persist in a changing world. Furthermore, anatomical structures allow for slight eurytolerance and potentially for compensation of abiotic stress. Overall, slight increases in temperature, driven by climate change may enable larvae of C. maenas to tolerate exposure to moderately low salinities and, combinedwith intrapopulation variability, potentially allows for population persistence. Summarized, this study emphasizes the importance of testing a wide range of ecologically relevant traits in developing pelagic larvae in order to properly characterize their response to environmental change. Changes in abundance and phenology of planktonic larvae like the zoeae of C. maenas have major potential to change a species‘ population structure significantly, and furthermore indirectly affect whole community and ecosystem structures. Therefore, this thesis may serve as a bridge to future studies in evolutionary and ecological developmental biology.

In times of recent climate change, mechanisms to deal with different environments (e.g. via dispersal to other habitats, or via in-situ responses such as genetic adaptation or phenotypic plasticity) are essential. In regions showing seasonality, organisms are already adapted to regular and, thus, often predictable environmental changes. One well-known strategy to survive periods of food shortage, especially during the winter, is hibernation. Although hibernation is already an adaptation to overcome unfavourable conditions, the optimal timing of hibernation to match for example food abundance peaks is likely to be influenced by changing climatic conditions, as expected during human-induced global change. Thus, the ability to respond to changes in optimal timing of hibernation can be crucial for organisms. All hibernators are positioned at the slow end of the slow-fast life history continuum. Longevity combined with a low annual reproductive output can result in slow recovery from population crashes and is expected to be associated with slow genetic adaptation. Therefore, it is assumed that phenotypic plasticity, a rather rapid and sometimes reversible process, is a crucial mechanism in long-lived organisms to adapt to changing environments. However, how differences in individual hibernation behaviour influence mortality and whether individuals are plastic with respect to their hibernation behaviour are largely unknown. Recent studies suggest that climatic change can influence hibernation behaviour in various species differently, in a positive or negative way. Female Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus) delayed their emergence from hibernation with later snow melt and lower spring temperatures. Next to the environmental impact, emergence date showed a moderate heritability in female Columbian ground squirrels. Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) emerged earlier from hibernation with warmer spring temperatures which resulted in a longer growing period for their offspring and, therefore, higher survival rates. In contrast, in alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) lower snow cover due to higher temperatures and, thus, less isolation led to lower juvenile survival. Negative effects, such as reduced juvenile survival, would be of high concern, especially for long-lived species with a low reproductive output. Bats are exceptionally long-lived compared to other mammals of the same size and often show a low reproductive output with one offspring per year. This is especially true in the temperate zone where bats, furthermore, are characterized by seasonality and depend on hibernation during winter period to survive food and water shortage. Because bats are of high conservation concern it is of prime importance to understand their ability to respond to different climatic conditions and associated mortality costs. The basis of this study was a five-year data set of 1047 RFID-tagged individuals from two bat species, Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri) and Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii), that were automatically tracked when entering or leaving the joint hibernaculum, “Brunnen Meyer”, located in north-western Germany. The two species are similar sized, share demographical traits and often occupy the same areas. Nevertheless, they differ in their foraging strategy and activity pattern during hibernation period. Natterer’s bats are able to glean insects from surfaces, even at low temperatures. Daubenton’s bats depend on flying arthropods and, thus, warmer temperatures. And indeed there is evidence that Natterer’s bats are able to hunt during hibernation period, while in Daubenton’s bats a lack of feeding during the hibernation period is suggested. Furthermore, Natterer’s bats are characterized by a higher activity at the hibernaculum throughout the hibernation period, while Daubenton’s bats on average arrive earlier, stay inactive through the winter and leave later in spring. In both species, the aim was to investigate the impact of their individual hibernation behaviour, precisely the timing of departure in late winter and early spring, on mortality, their adjustment of departure timing to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO), as well as differences within and between the two species from 2011 until 2015. To later on estimate the potential mortality costs of departure timing, gaining knowledge about the seasonal survival pattern (winter vs. summer) in the two species was a first necessity. In birds, particularly small species were described as winter-regulated populations with a higher mortality during winter. In contrast, in hibernating mammal species, such as bats, a relatively lower or similar winter survival compared to summer survival was shown. In this study, the analysed data demonstrated that the winter 2010/2011 was exceptionally catastrophic in Natterer’s bats and did not impact Daubenton’s bats. When excluding this catastrophic winter in Natterer’ bats, our results revealed a stable winter-summer-survival difference (higher winter and lower summer survival) in adult Natterer’s and Daubenton’s bats, with inter-annual variation in the level of survival which indicates a potential environmental impact on survival. This winter-summer survival pattern is in line with the survival pattern shown for other hibernators. Juveniles always had a lower survival rate than adult bats in both species. Nevertheless, the extent to which the species differ between seasons and age classes was stronger in Daubenton’s bats. They always showed a slightly higher winter survival and a lower summer survival than Natterer’s bats. Together with the catastrophic winter 2010/2011 in Natterer’s bats, this indicates a species-specific sensitivity to the timing of specific weather events which is in line with their foraging strategies and activity pattern during hibernation period. With respect to emergence behaviour from the hibernaculum, the results of this study suggest considerable differences among individuals within as well as between bat species. In comparison to Daubenton’s bats, Natterer’s bats tuned their emergence more closely to weather conditions, specifically the NAO, a large scale weather index related to winter severity, and showed individual variation in behavioural plasticity. In Daubenton’s bats only the females responded to changing conditions and left earlier in individually-experienced warmer and milder winters, comparable to Natterer’s bats females. A potential reason might be reproductive advantages for the females resulting in a longer growing period for their offspring. The shown higher winter survival in adult bats of both species indicated already higher energy expenditure outside the hibernaculum. Thus, leaving early, being active and staying outside longer by itself bore a risk (exposure risk effect). Under consideration of longer exposure times, early departing individuals had on top of that an increased risk to die. This was not given in each year, but a species- and year-specific pattern was revealed. Natterer’s bats were only significantly affected by early departure in 2011, while the remaining years show no significant additional risk of leaving early. In Daubenton’s bats, the years 2014 and 2015 were associated with a significantly higher mortality of leaving early. This is in line with the hypothesis that Daubenton’s bats might not be able to hunt for insects leaving too early and do so as a best out of a bad job. Nevertheless, the year-specific pattern suggests that early bats might profit from advantageous weather conditions during early spring. An additional hint for an environmental impact on early bat survival in at least Daubenton’s bats is that the median proportion of night hours above 3 °C within five days after departure was included in the model with the lowest AIC. However, the effect was not strong enough to be selected as the best model and, therefore, further analyses are needed to investigate this first hint. In conclusion, the reduced winter survival of juveniles compared to adults highlights the importance of considering age class effects in studies that investigate seasonal survival patterns. The stable species-specific winter-summer-survival difference with a higher winter survival compared to summer survival, as well as the one catastrophic winter in Natterer’s bats underline the importance of including seasonal survival patterns in assessing potential fitness costs of changed behaviour. Furthermore, our results suggest that long-lived hibernating bat species have the potential to plastically adjust to changing climatic conditions, but this potential differs between species. Among-individual differences in emergence together with species-specific mortality costs of early emergence suggest the potential for natural selection to shape hibernation phenology. In summary, our findings suggest species-, population- and group-specific differences in the ability to respond to changing environments and, therefore, underline the necessity to further investigate local responses in various organisms to estimate consequences of recent climate change on a wider range.

In the current era of anthropogenic climate change is the long-term survival of all organisms dependent on their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions either by (1) phenotypic plasticity, which allows species to tolerate novel conditions, (2) genetic adaptation, or (3) dispersal to more suitable habitats. The third option, dispersal, allows individuals to escape unfavorable conditions, the colonization of new areas (resulting in range shifts), and affects patterns of local adaptation. It is a complex process serving different functions and involving a variety of underlying mechanisms, but its multi-causality though has been fully appreciated in recent years only. Thus, the aim of this doctoral thesis was to disentangle the relative importance of the multiple factors relevant to dispersal in the copper butterfly Lycaena tityrus, including the individual condition (e.g. morphology, physiology, behavior) and the environmental context (e.g. habitat quality, weather). L. tityrus is a currently northward expanding species, which makes it particularly interesting to investigate traits underlying dispersal. In the first experiment, the influence of weather and sex on movement patterns under natural conditions was investigated. Using the Metatron, a unique experimental platform consisting of interconnected habitat patches, the second experiment aimed to examine the influence of environmental factors (resources, sun) on emigration propensity in experimental metapopulations. Human-induced global change (e.g. climate change, agricultural intensification) poses a substantial challenge to many herbivores due to a reduced availability or quality of feeding resources. Therefore, in the third experiment, the impact of larval and adult food stress on traits related to dispersal ability was investigated. Additionally, the effect of different ambient temperatures was tested. In the fourth experiment, core (Germany) and recently established edge (Estonia) populations were compared in order to explore variation in dispersal ability and life history traits indicative of local adaptation. Dispersal is often related to flight performance, and morphological and physiological traits, which was investigated in experiments 2-4. Butterflies were additionally subjected to behavioral experiments testing for the individual’s exploratory behavior (experiments 3 and 4). Males and females differed substantially in morphology, with males showing traits typically associated with a better flight performance, which most likely result from selection on males for an increased flight ability to succeed in aerial combats with rivalling males and competition for females. This pattern could be verified by mobility measures under natural conditions and flight performance tests. Interestingly, although females showed traits associated with diminished flight performance, they had a higher emigration propensity than males (though in a context dependent manner). Reasons might be the capability of single mated females to found new populations, to spread their eggs over a wide range or to escape male harassment. Conditions indicative of poor habitat quality such as shade and a lack of resources promoted emigration propensity. The environmental context also affected condition and flight performance. The presence of resources increased the butterflies’ condition and flight performance. Larval and adult food stress in turn diminished flight performance, despite some reallocation of somatic resources in favor of dispersal-related traits. These detrimental effects seem to be mainly caused by reductions in body mass and storage reserves. A similar pattern was found for exploratory behavior. Furthermore, higher temperatures increased flight performance and mobility in the field, demonstrating the strong dependence of flight, and thus likely dispersal, on environmental conditions. Flight performance and exploratory behavior were positively correlated, probably indicating the existence of a dispersal syndrome. The population comparison revealed several differences between edge and core populations indicative of local adaptation and an enhanced dispersal ability in edge populations. For instance, edge populations were characterized by shorter development times, smaller size, and a higher sensitivity to high temperatures, which seem to reflect adaptations to the cooler Estonian climate and a shorter vegetation period. Moreover, Estonian individuals had an enhanced exploratory behavior, which can be advantageous in all steps of the dispersal process and may have facilitated the current range expansion. In summary, these findings may have important implications for dispersal in natural environments, which should be considered when trying to forecast future species distributions. First, dispersal in this butterfly seems to be a highly plastic, context-dependent trait triggered largely by habitat quality rather than by individual condition. This suggests that dispersal in L. tityrus is not random, but an active process. Second, fast development and an enhanced exploratory behavior seem to facilitate the current range expansion. But third, while deteriorating habitat conditions are expected to promote dispersal, they may at the same time impair flight ability (as well as exploratory behavior) and thereby likely dispersal rates. For a complete understanding of a complex process such as dispersal, further research is required.

Unstable environments and habitats changing due to climate change force individuals to either respond by genetic adaptation, phenotypic plasticity or by dispersal to suitable environments. Theodoxus fluviatilis (Linneaus, 1758) is a good study organisms when researching phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation as it naturally appears in freshwater (FW) as well as brackish water (BW) and thus inhabits a wide range of environmental salinities (0-18‰). It is a euryhaline snail that can be found in shallow waters with stony ground or on Fucus spp. and has formed regional subgroups. The brackish water and the freshwater subgroups are spatially separated and the species cannot be found in areas inbetween, e.g. estuaries. The species shows great variability in shell patterning and shell size and there is still debate whether the subgroups are distinguishable by these traits or not. The mitochdrial RNA marker cytochrome c subunit I did not show differences between the subgroups indicating that they must be closely related, but salinity tolerance has been observed to be higher in BW snails. This might be caused by the different protein expression patterns and osmolyte accumulation (measured as ninhydrin-positive substances) observed in this species in previous studies. The exact mechanisms regulating protein expression and osmolyte accumulation, however, are not fully understood yet. Data collected for this thesis shows differences in shell size and suggests a less strict grouping of FW and BW individuals as shell sizes of one FW site are more similar to BW individuals than the other FW ones. A better salinity tolerance towards high salinities and a higher physiological salinity limit of BW snails was confirmed and extended by demonstrating an expanded tolerance range through slow acclimation to challenging salinities in snails from both subgroups. This was achieved by a shift in the slope of their reaction norms that was much more pronounced in BW snails than FW ones. S3 individuals showed a shift similar to that of BW individuals. The data for the salinity tolerance indicates that the underlying mechanism for these tolerances are a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation. Despite an acclimation and shift in the slope of the reaction norms and therefore an increased tolerance towards high salinities (plasticity) FW individuals from two collection sites were not able to cope with salinities as high as BW individuals (local adaptation). The general ability to mobilise free amino acids (FAA) as organic osmolytes was not the reason for this tolerance difference. Individuals from BW and FW sites were capable of accumulating quantities of FAAs equally well. Proline, alanine and urea were the most important components of the accumulated cocktail of organic osmolytes. Even though the total amount of FAAs accumulated under hyperosmotic conditions was the same in both subgroups, there were differences in the metabolic pathways involved in osmolyte accumulation in the foot muscle. The data indicates that the hydrolysis of storage proteins and the synthesis of proline and alanine are the main processes to avoid detrimental body volume shrinkage in T. fluviatilis. While FW individuals seemed to rely on the degradation of proteins and synthesis of alanine, BW individuals depended on newly synthesising proline and alanine and accumulating urea as a side product of transamination. The accumulation of urea is a new finding in aquatic living snails and has not been reported as a mechanism to avoid cell volume shrinkage in these animals. Differing protein expression patterns were observed under control conditions across all collection sites. 9 spots showed volume changes in BW snails opposite to those of FW snails from collection sites S1 and S2. For 6 of those spots, S3 individuals showed patterns similar to those of BW individuals and for the remaining 3 they showed patterns similar to those of FW animals. The patterns observed when exposing snails to hypo- or hyperosmotic stress were not conclusive in relation to pinpointing individual spots that show the same pattern in all collection sites, but revealed the heterogeneity of protein expression in snails from the different collection sites and in the process of osmoregulation. It also showed the general tendency of protein reduction when snails where under osmotic stress of either kind (hypo- or hyperosmotic), which supports the hypothesis of storage protein degradation. The investigation of an ANP-receptor showed two variations of the encoding sequence expressed in T. fluviatilis. S3 individuals as well as BW individuals were found to express one type, while FW individuals, with the exception of one sample expressed the other type. This showed that the FW subgroup of T. fluviatilis seems to be more heterogeneous than the BW subgroup, but also raises the question of the dispersal history of this species. The collected data indicates that T. fluviatilis individuals are firstly capable of surviving the acidity of a duck's gizzard and secondly can tolerate acute salinity changes to 16‰ when introduced into a new environment. Hence, if snails from the FW were to be transported to waters with a salinity of up to 16‰ by man, bird, drifting plants or some other means of transport, they would most likely survive and possibly be able to thrive and spread.

The phenomenon of partial migration in birds in which some individuals of a population are migratory while others stay in the breeding area is of increasing scientific interest. The strategies of partial migratory raptors from Central Europe are, however, unclear for most species. We analysed ring re-encounter data of Common Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipter nisus and Common Buzzards Buteo buteo ringed in Germany in terms of distances and directions between ringing and re-encounter sites. We investigated possible differences between sexes and age classes, as well as effects of ringing region, seasonal weather (in the form of North Atlantic Oscillation indices) and long-term temporal changes (including climate change) on migratory strategies by means of generalized linear models. We found that migration is mostly conducted by juveniles, although migratory adults were also found. In general, males tend to migrate less than females and juveniles less than adults. Kestrels showed differences between age classes and sexes and they responded to weather in summer and autumn. The migration activities of Kestrels decreased over years. Sparrowhawks from different regions showed no differences in migration activity and no responses to long-term temporal changes. They did not respond to seasonal weather either. Buzzards showed strong responses to winter weather (‘winter escapes’) predominantly in highland regions, and a reduction of migratory intensity probably due to global warming. The explanatory power of ringing data, however, is limited by low re-encounter rates and temporal and spatial heterogeneity in re-encounter probability. Spatial heterogeneity mainly depends on the distribution of observers as well as on their willingness to report a re-encountered ring to the corresponding ringing scheme. We analyzed a data set of ringing and re-encounter data of Kestrels, Buzzards and Sparrowhawks provided by the EURING Data Bank. We calculated monthly re-encounter rates across Europe and, for different time periods, we predicted re-encounters for individuals of these species ringed in Germany, on the assumption that re-encounter probabilities are evenly distributed at the highest value observed within the respective home ranges. Subsequently, we tested for correlation between re-encounter rates and human population density. The number of predicted re-encounters exceed the observed by 50-300 %. We found differences between monthly re-encounter rates and between different prediction periods. Distances (between ringing and re-encounter sites) differ significantly between observations and predicted re-encounters, with higher distances in predictions. Correlation between re-encounter rates and human population density is significant, but correlation coefficients are low (ρ = 0.291-0.511). Correcting for observer heterogeneity can help to analyze ring re-encounter data e.g. in terms of dispersal and migration. However, a comprehensive data collection and a digitalization of possible prior data records by the respective ringing schemes may allow advances in this method even further.

Costs of reproduction. A demographical approach to examine life-history trade-offs ─ Abstract. Resource-allocation trade-offs are fundamental constraints of life-history evolution. In particular the trade-offs between reproduction and longevity and between present and future reproduction are expected to form reproductive patterns. Unfortunately, exploring such trade-offs in natural populations is complicated and may not be possible. In face of several limitations, zoo data appear to be useful to better understand the reproductive biology of endangered, rare or cryptic species. In the first step, it was sought after with a data-mining, comparative multi-species approach for broad patterns of correlations between lifespan and variables in bird-eating spiders (Theraphosidae). The subfamily Eumenophoriinae on average lived longest, followed by the Theraphosinae, Ornithoctinae, Grammostolinae, Selenocosmiinae, Ischnocolinae and finally the Avicularinae. Species inhabiting tropical, more humid and/or low-altitude environments lived longer, suggesting that more predictable environments favour the evolution of longer lifespans. Furthermore, large range size, low abundance, sub-terrestrial life-style, and aggressive behaviour were all linked with longer lifespans. An argument for resource allocation trade-offs was found as larger spiderling and prosoma size were negatively related to longevity. In the second step, a demographical approach has been applied for two old-world deer species (Vietnamese sika deer Cervus nippon pseudaxis, Mesopotamian fallow deer Dama dama mesopotamica). In both species, births peaked right before the onset of the rainy season in natural environments. Females reached high reproductive output earlier in life and had (in one species only) higher survival rates than males. Offspring number covaried positively rather than negatively with longevity. In females, the length of the reproductive phase correlated positively with longevity, birth rate within the entire lifespan, and offspring number, while it was negatively correlated to the birth rate during the reproductive phase (in one species). The length of the post-reproductive phase was positively related to longevity and negatively to birth rate during the entire lifespan. In the third section, life-histories of Asiatic (Equus hemionus ssp.) and African wild asses (Equus africanus ssp.) have been anlaysed in a comparative way with another demographical long-term approach. All taxa showed even in captivity peak birth rates during the periods of highest food availability in their natural environments. Sex-specific survival rates with females living longer than males were evident in Kulan and Onager but not in Kiang and Somali wild ass, pointing towards different life-history strategies even among closely related taxa. Females achieved their highest reproductive output earlier than males, which is typical for polygynous mating systems. Offspring number and longevity were rather positively correlated than negatively. Taken together evidence for reproductive trade-offs was weak, though the length of the reproductive period was negatively related to birth rates within the reproductive period. Birth intervals increased with female age, probably reflecting detrimental effects of senescence.

Staphylococcus aureus, einer der häufigsten Erreger von Pneumonien, Endokardien und Sepsen (Frank et al. 2010), gehört bei nahezu einem Drittel der Bevölkerung zur normalen Nasenschleimhautflora (van Belkum et al. 2009) und kann unter bestimmten Risikobedingungen, vor allem in nosokomialer Umgebung, weiter in die unteren Atemwege vordringen und sich dort vermehren (van Belkum et al. 2009, Ahmed et al. 2015). Da das respiratorische Epithel von einer dicken, viskösen Mukusschicht bedeckt ist (Knowles & Boucher 2002), die Bakterien aufgrund ihrer Größe kaum durchdringen können, liegt die Hypothese nahe, dass es die sehr viel kleineren, löslichen Virulenzfaktoren der Bakterien sind, die den Mukus überqueren und einen ersten Pathogen-Wirt-Kontakt herstellen können. Das lösliche, porenbildende α-Hämolysin (Hämolysin a, Hla) ist einer der Haupt-Virulenzfaktor von S. aureus (Spaulding 2012). Studien hatten gezeigt, dass Hla auch in sublytischer Konzentration zu einer Auflösung der Zell-Zell- (Inoshima et al 2012) und Zell-Matrix-Kontakte (Hermann et al. 2015) humaner Atemwegsepithelzellen führte und so eine Lückenbildung im Zellverband induzierte. In vivo könnten solche Hla-vermittelten Prozesse dazu beitragen, dass eine erste Schädigung des Epithels erfolgt und die Überwindung der epithelialen Barriere für S. aures erleichtert wird. Die vorliegende Arbeit konnte in einem ersten Teil zeigen, dass diese Unfähigkeit von humanen Atemwegsepithelzellen (16HBE14o- und S9), nach Inkubation mit rHla den epithelialen Zusammenhalt aufrecht zu erhalten und entstandene parazelluläre Lücken durch aktive Migration zu schließen, auf eine rHla-induzierte Hyperphosphorylierung des fokalen Kontaktproteins Paxillin an Tyrosin 118 (und damit erhöhten Turnover der fokalen Kontakte) und Hypophosphorylierung des Actin-depolymerisierenden Faktors Cofilin an Serin 3 (und damit verstärkten Abbau von Stressfasern) zurückzuführen war. Der Hla-Effekt konnte so in fünf Prüfgrößen quantifizierbar erfasst werden: (1) Verlust des epithelialen Zusammenhalts, (2) Reorganisation des Actinzytoskeletts, (3) Auflösung fokaler Kontakte, (4) Hyperphosphorylierung von Paxillin und (5) Hypophosphorylierung von Cofilin. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden diese Prüfgrößen herangezogen, um den Mechanismus der Hla-Wirkung genauer aufzuklären. Durch Einsatz einer nichtporenbildenden Mutante rHla-H35L und dem Porenblocker IB201 konnte zunächst gezeigt werden, dass für die schädigenden Effekte auf den epithelialen Zusammenhalt der Zellen Ausbildung einer funktionellen Hla-Pore notwendig war und nicht Bindungsereignisse der Monomere, der Vorpore oder der Pore allein den Hla-Effekt auslösen konnten. Um die porenabhängigen Ereignisse zu untersuchen, wurden Ionenströme durch die Hla-Pore identifiziert und mit Ionomycin (erzeugt einen Calciumeinstrom) und Gramicidin (erzeugt einen Natriumeinstrom und Membrandepolarisierung) nachgebildet. Beide Ionenströme zusammen konnten den Hla-Effekt nahezu vollständig erzeugen. Die Ergebnisse wiesen darüber hinaus darauf hin, dass die Hla-erzeugten ionalen Veränderungen an der Membran unterschiedliche Signalveränderungen in der Zelle vermittelten: Calciumaktivierte Signalwege schienen vor allem für die beobachtete Paxillin-Phosphorylierung verantwortlich zu sein, während ein Natriumeinstrom zu einer Cofilin-Dephosphorylierung führte. Die genaue Signaltransduktion zwischen Einstrom der Ionen und (De-)Phosphorylierungsereignissen erfordert jedoch noch eine genauere Aufklärung. Des Weiteren konnte die Modellierung der Ionenströme den Hla-Effekt nicht komplett nachbilden, sodass wahrscheinlich zusätzliche porenabhängige Signalwege nach Hla-Behandlung (z.B. Verlust von ATP, Baaske & Richter et al. 2016) aktiviert werden.