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Tapire wurden bislang im Gegensatz zu ihren Verwandten, den Nashörnern und Pferden bei Studien zur Kommunikation deutlich weniger beachtet. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es daher zu überprüfen, welche Reize Informationen für die Kommunikation bei Tapiren bergen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die Reaktionen von Tapiren auf olfaktorische (Kotproben männlicher Tapire), akustische (Playback verschiedener Tierstimmen) und optische Reize (Plakate mit bearbeiteten Tapirsilhouetten) untersucht sowie das Pflegepersonal zur Wahrnehmung und Kommunikation bei Tapiren befragt. Die Forschungsaufenthalte fanden während der Jahre 2004, 2005 und 2006 in den Zoologischen Einrichtungen der Städte Berlin, Dortmund, Heidelberg, München, Nürnberg, Osnabrück und Mulhouse (Frankreich) statt. Insgesamt wurden 30 Individuen, davon 13 (8.5) Schabrackentapire (Tapirus indicus) und 17 (7.10) Flachlandtapire (Tapirus terrestris) in die Versuche einbezogen.
Küstenüberflutungsmoore sind typische Elemente der vorpommerschen Boddenküste an der südlichen Ostsee. Es sind nur wenige Dezimeter oberhalb des Meeresspiegels liegende Bereiche, die natürlicherweise von Röhrichten eingenommen werden. Mit der menschlichen Nutzung konnten sich seit dem Mittelalter eigenständige Salzgrünlandformationen etablieren, deren Fortbestand an eine extensive landwirtschaftliche Bewirtschaftung gebunden ist. Die Arbeit hat den Einfluss der Beweidung auf die ökofaunistische Indikatorgruppe der Laufkäfer als Repräsentanten des Stratums Epedaphon untersucht. Dafür wurden in den Jahren 2001 bis 2005 mit Bodenfallen die Laufkäfergesellschaften sowie verschiedene abiotische und biotische Standortfaktoren im Bereich von Küstenüberflutungsmooren am Greifswalder Bodden, auf der Insel Ummanz und am Strelasund erfasst. Darüber hinaus wurden bis in das Jahr 1986 zurückreichende vergleichbare Untersuchungen zu Laufkäfergesellschaften verschiedener Habitate der Ostseeküste von Mecklenburg-Vorpommern und Schleswig-Holstein analysiert. Die Auswertung erfolgte mit Hilfe deskriptiver und mulivariater Statistik, ökofaunistischer Indizes und Korrelations-, Regressions- und Indikatorarten-Analysen. Der Datensatz umfasste insgesamt 310 Laufkäfergesellschaften mit 156.140 Individuen aus 211 Arten. Im Gesamtvergleich aller Küsten- und küstennahen Habitate der südlichen Ostsee differenzieren sich die Laufkäfergesellschaften nach den Standortfaktoren Höhenlage, Bodensubstrat und vertikale Vegetationsdichte. Im torfgeprägten mittleren Geolitoral der Küstenüberflutungsmoore sind die horizontale Vegetationsdichte und die Streuschichtausprägung von entscheidender Bedeutung. Beide werden stark durch die Beweidung modifiziert und beeinflussen weitere edaphische Parameter wie Bodenfeuchte und –salinität sowie Raumfülle, -widerstand und das Mikroklima. In Kombination mit der Trittwirkung der Weidetiere und dem gesteigerten Überflutungseinfluss aufgrund der verringerten Anzahl von Mikrohabitaten kommt es mit zunehmender Beweidung zur Abnahme der Artenzahlen, Fangsummen und Biomasse der Laufkäfer sowie zur Zunahme des Individuenanteils halophiler und halobionter Arten. Es wurden drei charakteristische Laufkäfergesellschaften des aktuell beweideten Salzbinsenrasens (Juncetum gerardii), des aufgelassenen Salzgrünlandes (J. gerardii, Oenantho lachenalii-Juncetum maritimi) und ungenutzter Brackwasserröhrichte (Scirpetum maritimi) mit den entsprechenden Laufkäfer-Indikatorarten ermittelt. Das extensiv beweidete Salzgrünland ist ein überregional wichtiger Lebensraum für die naturschutzfachlich bedeutsamen Laufkäferarten Carabus clatratus und Agonum monachum. Aufgrund des anthropogen forcierten Klimawandels könnten sich zukünftig Veränderungen in der Zusammensetzung der Laufkäfergesellschaften ergeben, beispielsweise ist im Untersuchungsgebiet eine Arealregression der Indikatorart Bembidion transparens zu erwarten. Die Arbeit gibt Empfehlungen zum Nutzungsregime innerhalb des Salzgrünlandes und zur Effizienzkontrolle der Beweidungsmaßnahmen anhand der Laufkäfer. Dies wird beispielhaft anhand eines langjährigen Monitorings im Renaturierungsgebiet der Karrendorfer Wiesen dargestellt.
Der phylogenetische Ursprung der Hexapoda (Insekten sensu lato) ist kontrovers diskutiert. Einige morphologische Merkmale suggerieren ein Schwestergruppenverhältnis zu den Myriapoda (Tausenfüßer; Tracheatahypothese), während molekulare Sequenzdaten und andere morphologische Merkmale eine nähere Verwandtschaft zu den Crustacea (Krebstiere; Tetraconatahypothese) suggerieren. Ein Organsystem hat in dieser Diskussion eine besonderen Stellenwert, das Nervensystem. Die Neurophylogenie befasst sich mit der Rekonstruktion von Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen basierend auf neuroanatomischen Daten. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird der phylogenetische Ursprung der Hexapoda, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung basaler Taxa, nähre beleuchtet. Das Sensilleninventar zweier basaler Hexapoda [Eosentomon pinetorum (Protura: Eosentomidae) und Lepisma saccharina (Zygentoma: Lepismatidae)] wird basierend auf rasterelektronen-mikroskopischen Daten dargestellt. Neuroanatomische Daten wurden mit verschiedenen histologischen Techniken (Immunhistochemie, Seriendünnschnitte, Computertomografie, dreidimensionale Rekonstruktionen) gewonnen. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden Befunde zur Neuroanatomie zweier basaler Hexapoda [E. pinetorum und Thermobia domestica (Zygentoma: Lepismatidae)] und eines Vertreters der Myriapoda [Scutigerella causeyae (Symphyla: Scutigerellidae)] beschrieben. Eigene Befunde werden mit Literaturangaben verglichen und Implikationen für die sensorische Ökologie primär flügelloser Hexapoda und die Neurophylogenie der Mandibulata werden diskutiert. Für die Hexapoda wird das Grundmuster sensorischer Strukturen und assoziierter Nervensystemkompartimente (Neuropile) rekonstruiert. Basierend auf den Befunden zum Grundmuster der Hexapoda werden Konsequenzen für die sensorische Ökologie in frühe Evolution der Hexapoda und eine nähere Verwandtschaft zu den Myriapoda oder Crustacea diskutiert. Abschließend wird eine computergestützte Analyse zur Merkmalsevolution verschiedener Neuropile in 83 rezenten Arthropoden dargestellt. Bis auf die Ultrastruktur der Ommatidien (einzelne Einheiten der Komplexaugen) legt die Morphologie sensorischer Strukturen eine nähere Verwandtschaft zu den Myriapoda vor. Bestimmte Sensillentypen (Sensillum basiconicum, S. trichobothrium) kommen nur bei den Hexapoda und Myriapoda, aber auch den Chelicerata (Chelicerenträger) vor. Neuroanatomische Befunde legen eine nahe Verwandtschaft zwischen Hexapoda und Crustacea nahe. Eine belastbare Hypothese zur Neurophylogenie in den Arthropoda ist aufgrund mangelnder Vergleichbarkeit von Literaturangaben und unsicherer Homologisierungen neuronaler Strukturen nicht möglich. Aus neurophylogenetischer Sicht ist ein Schwestergruppenverhältnis der Hexapoda zu den Crustacea oder einem subspezischem Crustaceataxon am besten begründet.
Die Atemwege sind mögliche Eintrittspforten für Staphylococcus aureus in den menschlichen Organismus. Inhalierte Bakterien oder Bakteriencluster kommen initial vermutlich nicht direkt mit den Epithelzellen der Atemwege in Kontakt, sondern nur mit der aufgelagerten Mukusschicht. Die Mikroorganismen nehmen in dieser Situation möglicherweise über sekretorische lösliche Virulenzfaktoren auf die Funktion der Epithelzellen Einfluss und können dadurch das Infektionsgeschehen für sich günstig beeinflussen. Die Behandlung einer Infektion ist oft schwierig, da viele S. aureus-Stämme resistent gegenüber Antibiotika sind. Es ist daher von großem Interesse, mehr über die vielfältigen Interaktionen dieser Bakterien mit ihren eukaryotischen Wirtszellen in Erfahrung zu bringen. Bisher ist nur wenig über die Reaktionen humaner Atemwegsepithelzellen auf Kontakt mit S. aureus-Sekretionsprodukten bekannt, deswegen wurden in dieser Arbeit die Effekte der löslichen Virulenzfaktoren, Hämolysin A und B, auf die Zellmorphologie, Zytokinsezernierung und Ca2+-Signaltransduktion in verschiedenen humanen Atemwegsepithelzellen (16HBE14o-, S9, A549) genauer charakterisiert. Unter rHla-Einwirkung konnte in konfluenten Zellrasen die Bildung parazellulärer Lücken beobachtet werden, wobei die Stärke der Reaktion zelltypspezifisch war. Für die in vivo-Situation könnte der Verlust des stabilen Zellverbands bedeuten, dass das Bakterium dadurch die Möglichkeit erhielte, in den Wirtsorganismus einzudringen. Die Untersuchungen an primären Nasenepithelzellen unterstützen diese Schlussfolgerung. Hingegen zeigten Hämolysin B und die bakteriellen Zellwandbestandteile Lipoteichonsäure und Peptidoglykan kaum Effekte auf die Morphologie der Zellen. Durch fluorometrische Messung mit Indo1-beladenen Zellen wurde deutlich, dass die rHla-Behandlung und der daraus resultierende Einbau von Hla-Poren in die Membran der Atemwegsepithelzellen zu einem Ca2+-Einstrom in die Zellen führen. Wurden die A549-Zellen mit höheren Hla-Konzentrationen behandelt, war der Ca2+-Einstrom sehr stark und konnte nicht durch den zelleigenen Ca2+-Auswärtstransport kompensiert werden, so dass die intrazelluläre Ca2+-Konzentration [Ca2+]i stetig anstieg. Diese Ca2+-Überladung könnte zur Schädigung der Zellen oder gar zum Absterben einiger Zellen beigetragen haben, was in den Experimenten mit dem Time lapse-Mikroskop beobachtet wurde. Auch die Behandlung der A549-Zellen mit rHlb, durch dessen Sphingomyelinase-Aktivität Spaltprodukte entstehen können, die selbst als Signalmoleküle fungieren, führte zu einer leicht veränderten [Ca2+]i in den A549-Zellen. Ob dieses durch Sphingosin-1-Phosphat erfolgt, das in A549-Zellen tatsächlich ein deutliches Ca2+-Signal erzeugt, oder durch andere Hlb-bedingte Effekte auf die Zellen, wurde nicht abschließend geklärt. Auch der direkte Einfluss der beiden Hämolysine auf die Freisetzung von pro-inflammatorischen Zyto- und Chemokinen aus den Atemwegsepithelzellen unter rHla und rHlb wurde quantitativ bestimmt. Mit Hilfe von FlowCytomix-Kits konnte ebenfalls gezeigt werden, dass beide Hämolysine die Sekretion von IL-6 und IL-8 aus den Zellen bewirken. Um die physiologischen Vorgänge im respiratorischen Gewebe nach Kontakt mit S. aureus bzw. dessen Virulenzfaktoren zu ergründen, wurden in dieser Arbeit verschiedene endogene Proteinkinasen und Signalmoleküle der Atemwegsepithelzellen pharmakologisch inhibiert und untersucht, wie sich die selektive Hemmung der Signaltransduktion auf die Lückenbildung im Zellrasen unter der Stimulation mit rHla auswirkt. Da die intrazelluläre Konzentration von Ca2+-Ionen für die Steuerung der Salz- und Wassersekretion im respiratorischen Gewebe und somit für die Abwehr potentieller Pathogene wichtig ist, wurden für diese Arbeit einige Schlüsselelemente dieses Systems analysiert. Die Resultate weisen auf eine komplexe Verbindung der Signalwege hin, wobei die Zellantworten häufig Zelltyp-spezifisch waren. Es konnte durch Time lapse-Beobachtungen gezeigt werden, dass Calmodulin, c-Src, Calpaine, die Proteinkinasen A, G, B und C sowie NF-κB den Zellen tendenziell helfen, ihre Zellform unter rHla-Einwirkung zu bewahren. Für Calmodulin, die Ca2+/CaM abhängige Kinase II, ERK1/2, p38 und NF-κB wurde eine Beteiligung an der Erhöhung der Sekretionsraten von IL-8 und IL-6 durch rHla sowie rHlb festgestellt. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die untersuchten Signalwege, je nach Intensität der Einwirkung der bakteriellen Faktoren auf die Atemwegsepithelzellen, sowohl zellprotektive als auch Epithel-beeinträchtigende Prozesse beeinflussen, jedenfalls aber in die Produktion von Signalen (Freisetzung von Zyto- und Chemokinen) eingebunden sind, die solcherart Epithelzellen in vivo an das Immunsystem eines Wirts senden.
Die „protein misfolding cyclic amplification“ (PMCA) ist eine Methode zur Amplifikation des pathologischen Prion-Proteins in vitro und ermöglicht so den hochsensitiven Nachweis von PrPSc-Molekülen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, diese neue Untersuchungsmethode zum Nachweis des BSE-Erregers zu adaptieren, verschiedene Erregerstämme zu charakterisieren und unterschiedliche Gewebeproben aus der Pathogenese-Studie des FLI (HOFFMANN et al. 2007) auf ihren Priongehalt zu testen. Durch Festlegung von Standardwerten für die Ultraschallbehandlungen im Hinblick auf Zyklenzahl, Schallstärke, Inkubationstemperatur und Zyklusdauer sowie Verwendung definierter negativer als auch positiver Kontrollen, konnte die PMCA erfolgreich angepasst werden. Verwendet wurde als Substrat Hirnhomogenat transgener Mäuse, die das bovine PrPC überexpremieren (Tgbov XV). Bei Untersuchungen von Gewebeproben von insgesamt 4 Rindern aus der Pathogenesestudie konnte PrPSc in folgenden Gewebetypen nachgewiesen werden: dem dorsalen Root-Ganglion, dem Ganglion coeliacum, dem Ganglion stellatum, dem Ganglion trigeminale, der caudalen Medulla, den jejunalen und ilealen Peyer´schen Platten, dem Kolon, dem ilealen und jejunalen mesenterialen Lymphknoten, dem Nervus opticus, den Nebennieren, dem Rectum und dem Rückenmark und erstmals auch im Labmagen, dem Oesophagus und dem Pansen. Die PMCA wurde ebenso für die Untersuchung zur Speziesbarriere eingesetzt. Dazu wurden verschiedene TSE-Stämme (klassische BSE, atypische BSE, klassische Scrapie, ovine und caprine BSE sowie CWD) in unterschiedlichen Substraten mit bovinem und ovinem PrPC amplifiziert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Speziesbarriere eine verringerte Amplifikationseffizienz in vitro verursachte und teilweise die Amplifikation vollständig inhibierte. Zusätzlich wurde beobachtet, dass die Amplifikationseffizienz nicht nur von der Sequenzhomologie bestimmt wird, sondern auch von der Konformation der eingesetzten Isolate. Dies korreliert mit der erleichterten Infizierbarkeit von Individuen gleicher Art im Gegensatz zu der verringerten Übertragbarkeit zwischen artfremden Spezies (Speziesbarriere). Die mangelnde Umfaltungs-Effizienz ist eine Folge von Spezies-spezifischen Sequenzunterschieden im Prion-Protein und daraus resultierender Strukturunterschiede. Einen Hinweis auf ein verändertes Verhalten der Seeds in vivo und in vitro wurde bereits in der Literatur beschrieben. Intrazerebral infizierte Hamster, die mit einem in der PMCA amplifizierten Seed inokuliert wurden bewiesen, dass das neu gebildete PrPres infektiös war, da sich bei den Tieren nach etwa 165 Tagen, post infektionem, klinische Symptome für eine Scrapieerkrankung zeigten (CASTILLA et al. 2005). Wurden die Hamster aber direkt mit einem Hamster-Scrapie-Stamm der Variante 263K inokuliert, erkrankten diese schon nach 60 Tagen (KIMBERLIN et al. 1977), was auf eine Veränderung der PrPres-Fragmente während der PMCA-Reaktion hindeutet. Eine vergleichbare Studie zeigte, dass sich diese Ergebnisse bei intrazerebraler Inokulation in Mäusen reproduzieren lassen (WEBER et al. 2007). In der PMCA konnten also PrPres-Amplifikate mit veränderten biochemischen Eigenschaften generiert werden. Zukünftige Arbeiten müssen zeigen, inwieweit die PMCA andere diagnostische Nachweisverfahren (Mausbioassay, Immunhistochemie) für den BSE-Erreger ergänzen oder gar ersetzen kann. Um die PMCA als ein sicheres Diagnoseverfahren zu verwenden, sind jedoch weitere Untersuchungen insbesondere hinsichtlich der Spezifität der Methode nötig.
Das Gezeter des Seggenrohrsängers, die Alarmrufe der Uferschnepfe, das Gemecker der Bekassine, das Geschnarre des Wachtelkönigs und die Pfiffe des Tüpfelsumpfhuhns - kaum ein anderer Lebensraum weist so viele exklusive Vogelarten auf wie die Flusstalmoore. Dieser Moortyp dominiert die Grundmoränenlandschaft des südlichen Ostseeraumes. Jedoch wurde auch kein anderer Lebensraum vom Menschen so gründlich in seiner ökologischen Funktionstüchtigkeit gestört. Insbesondere die grossflächigen und tief gehenden Entwässerungen des 20. Jahrhunderts führten zum Verstummen zahlreicher Vogelarten. So ist etwa der Seggenrohrsänger heute vom globalen Aussterben bedroht. In Nordostdeutschland wurden in den letzten 15 Jahren grosse Anstrengungen unternommen, die Ökosystemleistungen der Flusstalmoore neu zu beleben. Dazu wurden über 20 000 Hektar Moorfläche wiedervernässt. Wie reagiert die Vogelwelt auf diese neuen Veränderungen? Bestehen Chancen für eine Wiederansiedlung verschollener Vogelarten? Wie können die Wiedervernässungsmassnahmen gestaltet werden, um gefährdete Vogelarten zu begünstigen? Lässt sich das Leitbild des Artenschutzes mit den Leitbildern des Moor- und Klimaschutzes und zukünftigen Bewirtschaftungsformen vereinen? Diesen Fragen ist der Autor in einer umfassenden Studie von Vogelwelt, Vegetation und Hydrologie am Beispiel des Peene- und Trebeltals in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern nachgegangen und stellt seine Ergebnisse hier vor.
Lebenslang persistierende Neurogenese ist ein fester Bestandteil des olfaktorischen Systems bei reptanten Dekapoden („Panzerkrebse“; lat. reptans – kriechend; griech. deca – zehn, podes – Füße). Dabei generiert das deutocerebrale proliferative System über die Larvalphase hinaus neue Neuronen, die in die bestehenden neuronalen Netzwerke der deutocerebralen chemosensorischen Loben (auch „olfaktorische Loben“) integriert werden. Während in zahlreichen Studien die phänotypische Ausprägung, der zelluläre Mechanismus zur Umsetzung adulter Neurogenese und deren regulierende Faktoren umfassend untersucht und zum Teil kontrovers diskutiert wurden, ist über die phylogenetische Verbreitung in anderen Taxa der Malacostraca („Höhere Krebse“; griech. malakos – weich, ostrakon – Schale) nichts bekannt. Daher wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit verschiedene Vertreter aus Malakostrakentaxa mit unterschiedlicher phylogenetischer Position untersucht und unter evolutionären Aspekten diskutiert. Wie gezeigt werden konnte, ist adulte Neurogenese vermutlich ein plesiomorphes Merkmal der Eumalacostraca, welches in Vertretern der Euphausiacea („Leuchtgarnelen“; griech. phausis – Leuchten) und Peracarida („Ranzenkrebse“; griech. pera – Ranzen, karides – kleine Seekrebse) reduziert wurde. In Abhängigkeit von der zugrunde gelegten Verwandtschaftshypothese ist die Reduktion der persistierenden Neurogenese entweder mehrfach unabhängig (konvergent) erfolgt oder ein apomorphes Merkmal eines Monophylums aus Euphausiacea und Peracarida. Dagegen ist innerhalb der Decapoda eine Ausdehnung und strukturelle Erweiterung des deutocerebralen proliferativen Systems feststellbar. Um einen möglichen Zusammenhang zur Komplexität und Bedeutung des olfaktorischen Systems zu überprüfen, wurden zusätzlich die neuroanatomischen Merkmale von Vertretern der Decapoda und der Peracarida (am Beispiel der Amphipoda) vergleichend betrachtet. Dabei konnte innerhalb der Decapoda eine Korrelation zwischen der Entwicklung des deutocerebralen proliferativen Systems und der Evolution des akzessorischen Lobus bei Vertretern der Reptantia sowie dessen Reduktion in der Gruppe der Meiura, zu denen die Vertreter der Brachyura („Echte Krabben“; griech. brachys – kurz, oura – Schwanz) und Anomura („Mittelkrebse“; griech. anomalos – ungleich) gehören, festgestellt werden. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurden Vermutungen über die im Adultus neu generierten Neuronenklassen und somit über die Funktion adulter Neurogenese aufgestellt. In allen anderen untersuchten Taxa der Malacostraca konnte dagegen keine Korrelation mit der Komplexität des olfaktorischen Systems festgestellt werden.
Urbanization is a major contributor to the loss of biodiversity. Its rapid progress is mostly at the expense of natural ecosystems and the species inhabiting them. While some species can adjust quickly and thrive in cities, many others cannot. To support biodiversity conservation and guide management decisions in urban areas, it is important to find robust methods to estimate the urban affinity of species (i.e. their tendency to live in urban areas) and understand how it is associated with their traits. Since previous studies mainly relied on discrete classifications of species' urban affinity, often involving inconsistent assessments or variable parameters, their results were difficult to compare. To address this issue, we developed and evaluated a set of continuous indices that quantify species' urban affinity based on publicly available occurrence data. We investigated the extent to which a species' position along the urban affinity gradient depends on the chosen index and how this choice affects inferences about the relationship between urban affinity and a set of morphological, sensory and functional traits. While these indices are applicable to a wide range of taxonomic groups, we examined their performance using a global set of 356 bat species. As bats vary in sensitivity to anthropogenic disturbances, they provide an interesting case study. We found that different types of indices resulted in different rankings of species on the urban affinity spectrum, but this had little effect on the association of traits with urban affinity. Our results suggest that bat species predisposed to urban life are characterized by low echolocation call frequencies, relatively long call durations, small body size and flexibility in the selection of the roost type. We conclude that simple indices are appropriate and practical, and propose to apply them to more taxa to improve our understanding of how urbanization favours or filters species with particular traits.
Sowohl für die Leistungsausprägung als auch die Gesundheit landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere ist die relative Verteilung von Skelettmuskel- und Fettgewebe ein entscheidender Faktor. Entwicklungs- und Wachstumsprozesse werden neben gewebespezifischen Faktoren auch durch Wechselwirkungen zwischen beiden Geweben beeinflusst. Beim Menschen sind das Auftreten von Adipositas und die damit verbundene geringere Ausprägung der Muskulatur und Veränderung metabolischer Prozesse entscheidende Risikofaktoren für die Entwicklung von Krankheiten. Die Aufklärung der Regulation der Entwicklung von Muskel- und Fettgewebe ist daher ein wichtiges Anliegen der Nutztierforschung, aber auch der humanmedizinischen Forschung. Adiponectin und Leptin gehören zu den am besten untersuchten Adipokinen, wobei der Fokus hauptsächlich auf der Regulation der Fettsäureoxidation, des Glucosestoffwechsels und der Insulinsensitivität lag und liegt. Beide Faktoren können sowohl von Fett- als auch Skelettmuskelgewebe synthetisiert und sezerniert werden und somit physiologische Prozesse in beiden Geweben beeinflussen. In wenigen Studien, hauptsächlich durchgeführt am Muskel von Nagern, wurden unterschiedliche Ergebnisse gezeigt, die auf widersprüchliche Effekte (positiv, negativ oder nicht nachweisbar) der Adipokine auf das Muskelwachstum hinweisen. Die Wirkung beider Adipokine auf den Proteinstoffwechsel porciner Muskelzellen wurde bisher noch nicht beschrieben. Ebenso gibt es bislang keinen Nachweis für das Vorhandensein der spezifischen Rezeptorproteine für Adiponectin (ADIPOR1, ADIPOR2) und Leptin (LEPR) im Skelettmuskel des Schweins. Das Ziel der Untersuchungen dieser Arbeit bestand in der Erforschung zellulärer und molekularer Prozesse der Regulation des Wachstums porciner Skelettmuskelzellen durch Adiponectin und Leptin. Es sollten erstmals 1) die direkte Wirkung beider Adipokine auf das Wachstum und die Differenzierung porciner Skelettmuskelzellkulturen und 2) die zugrundeliegenden Regulationsmechanismen unter Beteiligung wichtiger Signalwege des Energie- und Proteinstoffwechsels beschrieben werden. Aufgrund der Genexpression der spezifischen Rezeptoren für Adiponectin kann der porcine Skelettmuskel als Adiponectin-sensitives Gewebe betrachtet werden. Bei den Untersuchungen zeigte sich, dass die Wirkungen von Adiponectin und Leptin auf proliferierende porcine Skelettmuskelzellen von den vorherrschenden Kulturbedingungen abhängig sind. Die Behandlung mit Adiponectin bei der Verwendung von serumfreiem aber Wachstumsfaktor-supplementiertem Medium resultierte in einer verminderten DNA-Syntheserate, welche auf Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Adipokin und dem im Medium vorhandenen Wachstumsfaktor bFGF zurückzuführen war. Für Leptin konnte unter diesen Bedingungen nur eine kurzzeitige Hemmung der Proliferation porciner Muskelzellen beobachtet werden. Des Weiteren wurde die Wirkung von Adiponectin, aber nicht Leptin, auf die Prolfiferation porciner Myoblasten durch Ölsäure moduliert. Weiterhin zeigte sich, dass die Vitalität adipokinbehandelter Zellen im Vergleich zu unbehandelten Kontrollzellen unter serumfreien, wachstumsfaktor-supplementierten Bedingungen leicht verbessert war. Unter Niedrigserumbedingungen führten beide Adipokine zu einer gesteigerten DNA-Syntheserate, welche bei Leptin mit einer Verminderung der Zellzahl einherging. Im Gegensatz zu serumfreien Kulturbedingungen, unter denen die vorhandenen Wachstumsfaktoren die Zellen offensichtlich vor einem negativen Einfluss der Adipokine schützen, wurde bei der Verwendung von Medium mit niedrigem Serumgehalt eine verminderte Zellvitalität adipokinbehandelter Zellen beobachtet. Ein Einfluss von Adiponectin und Leptin auf den Proteinstoffwechsel differenzierender Kulturen konnte unter den verwendeten Kulturbedingungen nicht gezeigt werden. Weiterhin erhöhten Adiponectin und Leptin zwar den Differenzierungsgrad porciner Myoblasten in Form eines erhöhten Fusionsgrades, aber nicht bezüglich der Aktivität des Markerenzyms Creatinkinase. Die Untersuchungen verschiedener intrazellulärer Schlüsselsignalmoleküle zeigen erste Hinweise auf eine Beteiligung des p44/42 MAPK Signalweges an der Vermittlung der Adipokineffekte, obwohl dessen Aktivierung möglicherweise zu kurz ist, um eine langfristige stimulierende Wirkung auf downstream targets und somit auf physiologische Prozesse zu haben. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit leisten zum einen einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Aufklärung der Regulation von Wachstums- und Entwicklungsprozessen des Muskel- und Fettgewebes durch wechselseitige Beeinflussung. Zum anderen sind die beim Schwein gewonnenen Erkenntnisse aufgrund der dem Menschen ähnlichen Physiologie durchaus auf die Humanforschung übertragbar und somit ebenfalls für die Erforschung adipositas-assoziierter Erkrankungen beim Menschen relevant.
Die krankhafte Fettleibigkeit (Adipositas) wird in weiten Teilen der Welt zunehmend zum bestimmenden Gesundheitsproblem. Die Datenerhebungen der Weltgesundheits-organisation (WHO) sowie der Organisation zur wirtschaftlichen Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (OECD) zeigen einen deutlichen Anstieg der Adipositasprävalenz über die letzten Jahrzehnte. In vielen OECD Ländern gilt heute über die Hälfte der Bevölkerung als übergewichtig oder adipös (WHO: Website der WHO, zuletzt geprüft am 02.09.2017; OECD: Fettleibigkeit und Übergewicht nehmen in den OECD-Ländern weiter zu, zuletzt geprüft am 02.09.2017). Dies wird zur immer größeren Belastung für das Gesundheitssystem, da Adipositas mit vielen Sekundärkrankheiten wie Herz-Kreislauferkrankungen, Bluthochdruck und bestimmten Krebsarten assoziiert wird (Bray 2004; Després et al. 2001; Malnick und Knobler 2006). Für das Jahr 2003 wurde für das deutsche Gesundheitssystem dadurch ein finanzieller Aufwand in Höhe von 11 Milliarden Euro für die Behandlung von Adipositas oder durch Adipositas verursachte Komorbiditäten veranschlagt (Knoll 2010). Hinzu kommen „emotionale Kosten“ der Betroffenen, die unter sozialer Ausgrenzung und Stigmatisierung leiden (Latner und Stunkard 2003; Neumark-Sztainer et al. 1998; Sobal et al. 1995; Brewis et al. 2011; Brewis 2014).
Neben diesen klar Adipositas-assoziierten gesundheitlichen Beeinträchtigungen hat es immer wieder Untersuchungen zu einem möglichen Zusammenhang von Adipositas und Kognition gegeben. Dieser wurde in vielen Studien am Menschen untersucht und die bisherigen Ergebnisse sehr anschaulich von Anna Dahl und Linda Hassing 2013 beziehungsweise Christina Prickett und Kollegen 2015 analysiert (Dahl und Hassing 2013; Prickett et al. 2015). Diese Übersichtsarbeiten zeigen auf, dass es durchaus Belege für einen Zusammenhang von Adipositas und Kognition gibt, allerdings ist die Datenlage zu diesem Thema durchaus ambivalent.
In dieser Arbeit sollte deshalb der Einfluss von Adipositas auf die Kognition mithilfe eines etablierten Mausmodells für Adipositas untersucht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden adulte, vier bis sechs Monate alte, Leptin-defiziente Mäuse (ob) und deren Wildtypkontrollen (wt) vergleichend untersucht. Unsere Daten zeigen, dass Adipositas im Mausmodell nicht mit einer kognitiven Beeinträchtigung einher geht. Sowohl im Verhaltensexperiment (hippocampusabhängiges Lernen, Morris water maze) als auch auf zellulärer Ebene in der Verbindungsdichte der Nervenzellen untereinander (Dichte dendritischer Dornen) zeigten sich zwischen Leptin-defizienten und Wildtyptieren keine signifikanten Unterschiede.
Allerdings wiesen Leptin-defiziente Tiere ein kleineres Hirnvolumen als Wildtypkontrolltiere auf, ein Ergebnis, das mit anderen Publikationen übereinstimmt (Ahima et al. 1999; Steppan und Swick 1999). Detaillierte Analysen der Volumenverhältnisse im Gehirn von Leptin-defizienten und Wildtypmäusen in dieser Arbeit ergaben, dass sich die relativen Größenverhältnisse im Gehirn von ob‑Tieren zugunsten des Hippocampus verschieben. Diese Ergebnisse widersprechen damit Befunden in adipösen Menschen, die kleinere Hippocampusvolumina aufwiesen (Isaac et al. 2011).
Die adulte hippocampale Neurogenese selbst, also die Bildung neuer, funktionaler Neuronen im adulten Gehirn, war im Gyrus dentatus von Leptin-defizienten Mäusen signifikant vermindert. Zusammen mit den Analysen von Proliferation und Apoptose von Hirnzellen im Gyrus dentatus, konnte diese eingeschränkt Neurogenese auf eine geringere Proliferation neuronaler Vorläuferzellen zurückgeführt werden. Die Überlebens-wahrscheinlichkeit schien dabei nicht beeinflusst, da keine erhöhte Apoptose im Gyrus dentatus ermittelt werden konnte.
Die hier durchgeführten Experimente konnten keine direkte, negative Auswirkung von Adipositas auf Kognition im Mausmodell belegen. Wenngleich ein Einfluss auf Aspekte der neuronalen Plastizität durch eine verminderte adulte Neurogenese sowie das Gehirngesamtvolumen bestätigt werden konnte, waren Veränderungen des Verhaltens der ob‑Tiere unter Berücksichtigung ihrer motorischen Defizite nicht nachweisbar.
Insect migration redistributes enormous quantities of biomass, nutrients and species globally. A subset of insect migrants perform extreme long-distance journeys, requiring specialized morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations. The migratory globe skimmer dragonfly (Pantala flavescens) is hypothesized to migrate from India across the Indian Ocean to East Africa in the autumn, with a subsequent generation thought to return to India from East Africa the following spring. Using an energetic flight model and wind trajectory analysis, we evaluate the dynamics of this proposed transoceanic migration, which is considered to be the longest regular non-stop migratory flight when accounting for body size. The energetic flight model suggests that a mixed strategy of gliding and active flapping would allow a globe skimmer to stay airborne for up to 230–286 h, assuming that the metabolic rate of gliding flight is close to that of resting. If engaged in continuous active flapping flight only, the flight time is severely reduced to ∼4 h. Relying only on self-powered flight (combining active flapping and gliding), a globe skimmer could cross the Indian Ocean, but the migration would have to occur where the ocean crossing is shortest, at an exceptionally fast gliding speed and with little headwind. Consequently, we deem this scenario unlikely and suggest that wind assistance is essential for the crossing. The wind trajectory analysis reveals intra- and inter-seasonal differences in availability of favorable tailwinds, with only 15.2% of simulated migration trajectories successfully reaching land in autumn but 40.9% in spring, taking on average 127 and 55 h respectively. Thus, there is a pronounced requirement on dragonflies to be able to select favorable winds, especially in autumn. In conclusion, a multi-generational, migratory circuit of the Indian Ocean by the globe skimmer is shown to be achievable, provided that advanced adaptations in physiological endurance, behavior and wind selection ability are present. Given that migration over the Indian Ocean would be heavily dependent on the assistance of favorable winds, occurring during a relatively narrow time window, the proposed flyway is potentially susceptible to disruption, if wind system patterns were to be affected by climatic change.
Abstract
While chemical communication has been investigated intensively in vertebrates and insects, relatively little is known about the sensory world of spiders despite the fact that chemical cues play a key role in natural and sexual selection in this group. In insects, olfaction is performed with wall–pore and gustation with tip‐pore sensilla. Since spiders possess tip‐pore sensilla only, it is unclear how they accomplish olfaction. We scrutinized the ultrastructure of the trichoid tip‐pore sensilla of the orb weaving spider Argiope bruennichi—a common Palearctic species the males of which are known to be attracted by female sex pheromone. We also investigated the congener Argiope blanda. We examined whether the tip‐pore sensilla differ in ultrastructure depending on sex and their position on the tarsi of walking legs of which only the distal parts are in contact with the substrate. We hypothesized as yet undetected differences in ultrastructure that suggest gustatory versus olfactory functions. All tarsal tip‐pore sensilla of both species exhibit characters typical of contact‐chemoreceptors, such as (a) the presence of a pore at the tip of the sensillum shaft, (b) 2–22 uniciliated chemoreceptive cells with elongated and unbranched dendrites reaching up to the tip‐pore, (c) two integrated mechanoreceptive cells with short dendrites and large tubular bodies attached to the sensillum shaft's base, and (d) a socket structure with suspension fibres that render the sensillum shaft flexible. The newly found third mechanoreceptive cell attached to the proximal end of the peridendritic shaft cylinder by a small tubular body was likely overlooked in previous studies. The organization of tarsal tip‐pore sensilla did not differ depending on the position on the tarsus nor between the sexes. As no wall‐pore sensilla were detected, we discuss the probability that a single type of sensillum performs both gustation and olfaction in spiders.
Shallow aquatic environments are characterized by strong environmental variability. For ectotherms, temperature is the main driver of metabolic activity, thus also shaping performance. Ingestion rates in mysids are fast responses, influenced by metabolic and behavioral activity. We examined ingestion rates of the mysid Neomysis integer, collected in the Baltic Sea, after one-week exposure to different constant and fluctuating temperature regimes (5, 10, 15, 20°C and 9 ± 5, 14 ± 5°C, respectively). To investigate possible differences between sexes, thermal performance curves (TPCs) were established for female and male mysids based on ingestion rates measured at constant temperatures. TPCs of ingestion rates at constant temperatures differed between sexes, with female mysids showing a higher total ingestion rate as well as a higher thermal optimum compared to male mysids. Females showed reduced ingestion rates when exposed to fluctuating temperatures around their thermal optimum, whereas ingestion of male mysids was not reduced when exposed to fluctuating temperatures. The observed sex-specific differences might be related to potentially higher lipid and energy demands of the females. We suggest future studies should investigate males and females to improve our understanding about impacts of environmental variability on natural populations.
Die Fähigkeit Temperaturstress zu wiederstehen gilt als äßerst wichtig für die Fitness eines Individuums oder das Überleben von Arten. Lebewesen müssen daher effektive Mechanismen entwickeln, um unter belastenden Temperaturbedingungen überleben zu können. Reaktionen auf sich ändernde Umweltbedingungen könnnen schnell durch phänotypische Plastizität oder langsame durch genetische Adaptation erfolgen. Neben Temperaturstress haben möglicherweise auch andere Umweltfaktoren einen Effekt auf die Temperaturstressresistenz. Wir erforschten zunächst phänotypische Anpassungen der Temperaturstressresistenz, ausgelöst durch unterschiedliche Manipulationen der Umwelt, bei dem Augenfalter Bicyclus anynana. Temperaturinduzierte Plastizität bewirkte eine schnelle und deutliche Änderung in der Temperaturstressresistenz, dieser Effekt ist reversibel. Kurzzeitige Abhärtung ergab komplexere Muster, so war die Kältestressresistenz beispielsweise am höchsten bei intermediären Temperaturen. Die Temperaturstressresistenz konnte auch durch Futtererhältlichkeit, Alter und Lichtzyklus beeinflußt werden. Des weiteren wurde der Einfluß der Photoperiode auf die Temperaturstressresistenz an der Fliege Protophormia terranovae erforscht. Variationen der Temperaturstressresistenz konnten durch Änderungen in der Photoperiode hervorgerufen werden, so bewirkten kürzere Tageslängen kälteresistentere und längere Tage hitzeresistentere Phänotypen. Wir schlagen vor, dass es sich hierbei um adaptive saisonale Plastizität handelt. Neben Temperaturstress hat möglicherweise auch Inzucht einen negativen Einfluss auf die Fähigkeit, mit sich ändernden Umweltbedingungen zurechtzukommen. Das könnte das Aussterberisiko kleiner Populationen erhöhen, insbesondere wenn Häufigkeit und Intensität extremer Wetterereignisse in Zukunft zunehmen sollen. Wir untersuchten den Einfluss von Inzucht auf den Schlupferfolg, die Entwicklung und die Temperaturstresstoleranz bei dem tropischen Augenfalter Bicyclus anynana indem wir drei verschiedene Inzuchtniveaus bildeten( Ausgekreuzt, nach 1 und nach 2 Geschwisterverpaarungen). Bereits diese vergleichsweise niedrigen Inzuchtniveaus hatten einen negativen Einfluss auf die Reproduktion und Entwicklung bei günstigen Umweltbedingungen. Inzucht reduzierte auch die Kältetoleranz bei adulten Schmetterlingen, während es keinen Einluss auf die Hitzetoleranz gab. Wir schließen daraus das Stresstoleranz nicht zwangsläufig durch Inzucht negativ beeinflusst wird. Verringerte genetische Diversität als Konsequenz von Inzucht oder Drift verringert möglicherweise auch das evolutionäre Potential einer Population. Wir erforschten die Auswirkungen von Inzucht auf das evolutionäre Potential (die Fähigkeit, Kältetoleranz zu erhöhen) mit Hilfe künstlicher Selektion beginnend von drei Inzuchtniveaus (ausgekreuzt, eine und zwei Geschwisterverpaarungen.) Obwohl ein negativer Einfluss genetischer Erosion (z.B. durch Inzucht) auf das evolutionäre Potential theoretisch vorhergesagt wird, sind empirische Nachweise bisher kaum vorhanden. Unsere Studie zeigt eine deutliche Raktion auf die Selektion, deren Effekt in den ingezüchteten Populationen kleiner war als in den ausgekreuzten Populationen. Korrelierte Reaktionen auf die Selektion untersucht in 10 verschiedenen Merkmalen der Lebensgeschichte konnten nicht gefunden werden. Eine Inzuchtdepression ließ sich in einigen untersuchten Merkmalen nach wie vor nachweisen. Merkmale, die bedeutender für die Fitness sind, zeigten dagegen eine deutliche Erholung von der Inzuchtdepression. Wir konnten mit diese Studie experimentell zeigen, das erhöhte Inzuchtniveaus das evolutionäre Potential reduzieren und damit auch die Fähigkeit, sich an ändernde Umweltbedingungen anzupassen. Zuletzt untersuchten wir, ob die durch Selektion erhöhte Kältetoleranz für alle Entwicklungsstadien gilt. Es gab eine positive signifikante Reaktion auf die Selektion bei Imagines, die ein Tag alt waren (das Alter, in dem die Selektion stattgefunden hatte). Ältere Individuen zeigten eine ähnliche, jedoch schwächere Reaktion. Die erhöhte Kälteresistenz ließ sich jedoch nicht bei Eiern, Raupen oder Puppen nachweisen und war sogar geringer in den Selektionslinien im Vergleich zu den Kontrollinien bei Eiern und jungen Raupen. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf Kosten erhöhter Kältetoleranz im adulten Stadium hin, so dass vermutlich weniger Ressourcen für den Nachwuchs in frühen Stadien der Ontogenie bleiben. Diese Dissertation verdeutlicht, wie wichtig es ist, sowohl genetische als auch Umwelteffekt zusammen zu betrachten, da beide interaktiv die Fähigkeit eines Organismus herausfordern sich an ändernde Bedingungen anzupassen. In Zeiten von durch den Menschen verursachten Verlust und/oder der Verkleinerung von Habitaten, die die Populationsgrößen verkleinern und damit auch die genetische Diversität, sowie erhöhtem Temperaturstress aufgrund des Klimawandels, wird das langfristige Überleben von Arten von dieser Fähigkeit abhängen.
Introduction: At the cellular level, acute temperature changes alter ionic conductances, ion channel kinetics, and the activity of entire neuronal circuits. This can result in severe consequences for neural function, animal behavior and survival. In poikilothermic animals, and particularly in aquatic species whose core temperature equals the surrounding water temperature, neurons experience rather rapid and wide-ranging temperature fluctuations. Recent work on pattern generating neural circuits in the crustacean stomatogastric nervous system have demonstrated that neuronal circuits can exhibit an intrinsic robustness to temperature fluctuations. However, considering the increased warming of the oceans and recurring heatwaves due to climate change, the question arises whether this intrinsic robustness can acclimate to changing environmental conditions, and whether it differs between species and ocean habitats.
Methods: We address these questions using the pyloric pattern generating circuits in the stomatogastric nervous system of two crab species, Hemigrapsus sanguineus and Carcinus maenas that have seen a worldwide expansion in recent decades.
Results and discussion: Consistent with their history as invasive species, we find that pyloric activity showed a broad temperature robustness (>30°C). Moreover, the temperature-robust range was dependent on habitat temperature in both species. Warm-acclimating animals shifted the critical temperature at which circuit activity breaks down to higher temperatures. This came at the cost of robustness against cold stimuli in H. sanguineus, but not in C. maenas. Comparing the temperature responses of C. maenas from a cold latitude (the North Sea) to those from a warm latitude (Spain) demonstrated that similar shifts in robustness occurred in natural environments. Our results thus demonstrate that neuronal temperature robustness correlates with, and responds to, environmental temperature conditions, potentially preparing animals for changing ecological conditions and shifting habitats.
Background
Phylogenomic studies over the past two decades have consolidated the major branches of the arthropod tree of life. However, especially within the Chelicerata (spiders, scorpions, and kin), interrelationships of the constituent taxa remain controversial. While sea spiders (Pycnogonida) are firmly established as sister group of all other extant representatives (Euchelicerata), euchelicerate phylogeny itself is still contested. One key issue concerns the marine horseshoe crabs (Xiphosura), which recent studies recover either as sister group of terrestrial Arachnida or nested within the latter, with significant impact on postulated terrestrialization scenarios and long-standing paradigms of ancestral chelicerate traits. In potential support of a nested placement, previous neuroanatomical studies highlighted similarities in the visual pathway of xiphosurans and some arachnopulmonates (scorpions, whip scorpions, whip spiders). However, contradictory descriptions of the pycnogonid visual system hamper outgroup comparison and thus character polarization.
Results
To advance the understanding of the pycnogonid brain and its sense organs with the aim of elucidating chelicerate visual system evolution, a wide range of families were studied using a combination of micro-computed X-ray tomography, histology, dye tracing, and immunolabeling of tubulin, the neuropil marker synapsin, and several neuroactive substances (including histamine, serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase, and orcokinin). Contrary to previous descriptions, the visual system displays a serial layout with only one first-order visual neuropil connected to a bilayered arcuate body by catecholaminergic interneurons. Fluorescent dye tracing reveals a previously reported second visual neuropil as the target of axons from the lateral sense organ instead of the eyes.
Conclusions
Ground pattern reconstruction reveals remarkable neuroanatomical stasis in the pycnogonid visual system since the Ordovician or even earlier. Its conserved layout exhibits similarities to the median eye pathway in euchelicerates, especially in xiphosurans, with which pycnogonids share two median eye pairs that differentiate consecutively during development and target one visual neuropil upstream of the arcuate body. Given multiple losses of median and/or lateral eyes in chelicerates, and the tightly linked reduction of visual processing centers, interconnections between median and lateral visual neuropils in xiphosurans and arachnopulmonates are critically discussed, representing a plausible ancestral condition of taxa that have retained both eye types.
The Spider Anatomy Ontology (SPD)—A Versatile Tool to Link Anatomy with Cross-Disciplinary Data
(2019)
This thesis draws a comprehensive picture about the radiation and diversification of truncatelloidean gastropods across the south pacific. It covers three more specifc studies focussing on the Truncelloideans from Fiji, Vanuatu and New Caledonia, respectively. And a conclusive analysis that combines the results of the three more specific studies and enhances them using species from the Austral Islands, Lord Howe Island, the Indonesian island Sulawesi as well as several species from New Zealand and Australia. Molecular phylogenies were calculated using four nuclear gene fragments (ITS2; 18S rRNA; 28S rRNA and Histone 3) besides the mitochondrial COI and 16S rRNA. Further molecuular data was used to calculate dated phylogenies, perform ancestral range reconstructions and develop a modified molecular barcoding approach.
Abstract
Emperor penguins breed during the Antarctic winter and have to endure temperatures as low as −50 °C and wind speeds of up to 200 km h−1. To conserve energy, they form densely packed huddles with a triangular lattice structure. Video recordings from previous studies revealed coordinated movements in regular wave-like patterns within these huddles. It is thought that these waves are triggered by individual penguins that locally disturb the huddle structure, and that the traveling wave serves to remove the lattice defects and restore order. The mechanisms that govern wave propagation are currently unknown, however. Moreover, it is unknown if the waves are always triggered by the same penguin in a huddle. Here, we present a model in which the observed wave patterns emerge from simple rules involving only the interactions between directly neighboring individuals, similar to the interaction rules found in other jammed systems, e.g. between cars in a traffic jam. Our model predicts that a traveling wave can be triggered by a forward step of any individual penguin located within a densely packed huddle. This prediction is confirmed by optical flow velocimetry of the video recordings of emperor penguins in their natural habitat.
Flies form high-density associations with human settlements and groups of nonhuman primates and are implicated in transmitting pathogens. We investigate the movement of nonhuman primate-associated flies across landscapes surrounding Kibale National Park, Uganda, using a mark–recapture experiment. Flies were marked in nine nonhuman primate groups at the forest edge (x̄ = 929 flies per group), and we then attempted to recapture them in more anthropized areas (50 m, 200 m and 500 m from where marked; 2–21 days after marking). Flies marked in nonhuman primate groups were recaptured in human areas (19/28,615 recaptured). Metabarcoding of the flies in nonhuman primate groups revealed the DNA of multiple eukaryotic primate parasites. Taken together, these results demonstrate the potential of flies to serve as vectors between nonhuman primates, livestock and humans at this biodiverse interface.
Many of the world’s most biodiverse regions are found in the poorest and second most populous continent of Africa; a continent facing exceptional challenges. Africa is projected to quadruple its population by 2100 and experience increasingly severe climate change and environmental conflict—all of which will ravage biodiversity. Here we assess conservation threats facing Africa and consider how these threats will be affected by human population growth, economic expansion, and climate change. We then evaluate the current capacity and infrastructure available to conserve the continent’s biodiversity. We consider four key questions essential for the future of African conservation: (1) how to build societal support for conservation efforts within Africa; (2) how to build Africa’s education, research, and management capacity; (3) how to finance conservation efforts; and (4) is conservation through development the appropriate approach for Africa? While the challenges are great, ways forward are clear, and we present ideas on how progress can be made. Given Africa’s current modest capacity to address its biodiversity crisis, additional international funding is required, but estimates of the cost of conserving Africa’s biodiversity are within reach. The will to act must build on the sympathy for conservation that is evident in Africa, but this will require building the education capacity within the continent. Considering Africa’s rapidly growing population and the associated huge economic needs, options other than conservation through development need to be more effectively explored. Despite the gravity of the situation, we believe that concerted effort in the coming decades can successfully curb the loss of biodiversity in Africa.
Abstract
Pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) has become a species of interest in aquaculture. It is a popular and economically valuable food fish and can produce high numbers of offspring. However, during early development, there are transition phases when high mortality rates concur with growth changes, vital organ transformations and a limited energy budget. Up to now, no study focused on the developmental adaption of muscle tissue in pikeperch, regardless of muscle tissue influencing essential traits such as locomotion and thus the competence to hunt prey and avoid predators. In the present study, therefore, the developmental myogenesis of pikeperch was analysed using specimens from early embryonic to larval development. Myogenic and developmental genes were utilized to gain insights into transcriptomic regulation during these stages by applying a nanofluidic qPCR approach. Result, three phases of myogenic gene expression, during somitogenesis, during the late embryonic development and during the larval development were detected. Increased myostatin expression showed an interim arrest of muscle formation between embryonic and larval myogenesis. Expression patterns of satellite cell gene markers indicated an accumulation of stem cells before myogenesis interruption. The here gained data will help to broaden the knowledge on percid myogenesis and can support pikeperch rearing in aquaculture.
Predation is a major evolutionary driver of animal adaptation. However, understanding of anti-predator evolution is biased toward vertebrate taxa. Cephalopoda, a class in the invertebrate phylum Mollusca, are known for their diverse anti-predator strategies, characterised by their behavioural flexibility. While ancestral cephalopods were protected by a hard outer shell, extant cephalopods have greatly reduced their reliance on physical defences. Instead, cephalopods have evolved highly developed senses to identify potential threats, cryptic skin patterns to avoid detection, startle responses to deter attack, and elaborate means of escape. While cephalopod anti-predator repertoires are relatively well described, their evolution, and the selective pressures that shaped them, have received much less attention. This is despite their potential relevance, in turn, to elucidate evolution of the remarkable cognitive abilities of cephalopods. Here, we review cephalopod anti-predator evolution, considering four key aspects: (i) shell reduction and loss; (ii) the skin patterning system; (iii) the ecological context accompanying the evolution of advanced cognit.ive abilities; (iv) why the evolutionary trajectory taken by cephalopods is so unique among invertebrates. In doing so, we consider the unique physiology of cephalopods and discuss how this may have constrained or aided the development of their anti-predator repertoire. In particular, cephalopods are poorly equipped to defend themselves physically and escape predation by fish, due to a lack of comparable weaponry or musculature. We argue that this may have selected for alternative forms of defence, driving an evolutionary trajectory favouring crypsis and complex behaviours, and the promotion of sensory and cognitive adaptations. Unravelling the complexities of cephalopod anti-predator evolution remains challenging. However, recent technological developments available for cephalopod field and laboratory studies, coupled with new genomic data and analysis approaches, offer great scope to generate novel insights.
The need for the diversification of utilised species has emerged in the present aquaculture
production environment. Shifts in consumer interest, climate change-induced temperature
increases, and major fish disease outbreaks have put a strain on this industry. In this context,
the pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) has become a new target species for aquaculture in Central
Europe. This new aquaculture focus species exhibits high numbers of offspring, fast growth,
and high consumer acceptance. It can also effectively deal with higher temperatures and turbid
water. However, the rate of successful rearing is still low, as various developmental
transformations and environmental effects commonly lead to high mortality rates during the
early ontogenetic stages. The aim of this doctoral project was thus to obtain insight into
embryonic to larval developmental changes during pikeperch ontogeny. Specifically, the times
of change that influence survival were of focus. Based on the available literature, particular
attention was paid to general growth patterns and the connected developmental changes, the
determination of myogenesis gene marker expression changes, and the support of animal
welfare efforts for pikeperch rearing procedures. To achieve the aims of the study, a methodical
setup consisting of morphometric and developmental observations was combined with
transcriptome gene marker analysis for the different ontogenetic stages.
Three developmental phases were differentiated during the embryo-larval transition. Each of
these possessed distinct growth patterns with different growth rates. The intermediate
threshold phase showed internal organ development that focused on digestive, neuronal, and
heart tissues. Three activity phases of myogenesis were determined: during early embryonic
development, before hatching, and after hatching during the larval stages. Therefore, muscle
development seemed to be regulated to balance energy expenditures. Additionally, two
coinciding skeletogenic phases were found. Furthermore, a cell line from whole embryos was
developed to support the replacement of animals in future experimental setups. A software
system for video analyses was developed to support rearing procedures in aquaculture
facilities. This prototype can be used to automate the counting of specimens and thus allows
for faster responses to increasing mortalities. Based on the results of this thesis project, further
insights into the early development of pikeperches were obtained. This will facilitate the design
and adaptation of raising and husbandry protocols, which can help to further establish
pikeperch as an aquaculture species and support its application in modern recirculatory
systems.
Having been regarded as wastelands until quite recently, wetlands are increasingly acknowledged as ecosystems of high biodiversity. Wetland restoration projects are often accompanied by the implementation of specific species management programs. Naturally, for effective management measures, profound knowledge of the target speciesʼ ecological requirements is obligatory, including habitat selection, feeding ecology as well as spatial behaviour such as movements within and between patches of suitable habitat. Yet, big knowledge gaps exist for many marshland birds which is particularly true for highly secretive species such as rails and crakes. Considered as the least known among the Palaearctic breeding birds, most information about the Baillon's Crake Zapornia pusilla is only anecdotic, resulting in strong uncertainties with regard to the species' distribution, population sizes, status, migratory behaviour as well as ecological requirements. This can be mainly attributed to the species' skulking behaviour and its seemingly highly erratic occurrence. Baillon's Crakes in the Western Palaearctic and Palaeotropics are referred to as the subspecies Z. p. intermedia. While European breeding birds are assumed to winter in sub-Saharan wetlands, African populations are considered rather to be itinerant with local movements induced by seasonal or anthropogenic habitat changes. However, for both migratory movements, major directions or routes are unknown. The discovery of a large number of Baillon's Crakes presumably wintering in the floodplains of the Parc National des Oiseaux du Djoudj (PNOD), situated in the Senegal River Delta, WAfrica, initiated this thesis. The main aim of the study was, firstly, to clarify the status and size of this population and assess its connectivity to European breeding population(s). Secondly, in order to improve the knowledge about the species' ecological requirements as a basis for the National Parks conservation management, habitat selection, spatial behaviour as well as dietary selectivity were investigated. The major part of the fieldwork was performed in PNOD in the course of the dry season during periods of 1.5 - 2.5 months from December - March 2009, 2010 and 2013. Baillon's Crakes were mainly caught with cage traps, ringed and common measurements were taken, including moult status. Skin tissue as well as one rectrice was sampled for DNA and stable isotope analyses. This was also done for Baillon's Crakes caught in European breeding grounds in Germany, Montenegro and Southern Spain. For dietary analyses, faecal samples were collected in PNOD in winter 2009/2010. Furthermore, some individuals were equipped with radio-transmitters to determine home range size and habitat selection. For the identification of the most relevant habitat parameters both on a population as well as on the individuals' level, we used a vegetation map based on satellite imagery covering the entire Djoudj area as well as maps generated on the basis of aerial photographs taken at two study sites.
Flies are implicated in carrying and mechanically transmitting many primate pathogens. We investigated how fly associations vary across six monkey species (Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercopithecus mitis, Colobus guereza, Lophocebus albigena, Papio anubis, and Piliocolobus tephrosceles) and whether monkey group size impacts fly densities. Fly densities were generally higher inside groups than outside them, and considering data from these primate species together revealed that larger groups harbored more flies. Within species, this pattern was strongest for colobine monkeys, and we speculate this might be due to their smaller home ranges, suggesting that movement patterns may influence fly–primate associations. Fly associations increase with group sizes and may thus represent a cost to sociality.
Stressresistenz verschiedener Entwicklungsstadien bei Tagfaltern unter dem Einfluss des Klimawandels
(2016)
Der anthropogene Klimawandel stellt für die Erhaltung der biologischen Vielfalt eine erhebliche Herausforderung dar. Dokumentierte biologische Reaktionen auf den jüngsten Klimawandel beinhalten phänologische und Verbreitungs-Verschiebungen sowie Abnahmen von an Kälte angepassten und Zunahmen von an Wärme angepassten Arten. Letzteres zeigt, dass einige Arten unter den sich ändernden Bedingungen leiden werden, während andere davon profitieren können. Welche spezifischen biologischen Eigenschaften darüber bestimmen, ob eine bestimmte Art ein „Gewinnen“ oder „Verlierer“ des Klimawandels sein wird, ist bis jetzt jedoch weitgehend unbekannt. Diese Dissertation untersuchte im ersten Experiment bei dem tropischen Schmetterling Bicyclus anynana welches Entwicklungsstadium am empfindlichsten auf Hitzestress reagiert. Ich konnte zeigen, dass Entwicklungsstadien deutlich in ihrer Hitzetoleranz variierten und Eier die höchste Anfälligkeit gegenüber Hitze zeigten. Auffällig war, dass die meisten Veränderungen in der Hitzetoleranz durch Unterschiede in der Körpermasse erklärt werden konnten, was somit zukünftig Einschränkungen in der Anpassungsfähigkeit mit sich bringen könnte. Ich schließe daraus, dass das Überleben der Arten unter dem Einfluss des Klimawandels vermutlich von anderen als dem auffälligen Imaginalstadium abhängt. Im zweiten Experiment habe ich die Stresstoleranz (Hitze und Trockenheit) während der frühen Entwicklung, bei drei verwandten Schmetterlingsarten mit unterschiedlichen Anfälligkeiten gegenüber dem Klimawandel, untersucht. Diese Arten sind Lycaena tityrus, L. dispar und L. helle. Die am meisten gefährdete Art (L. helle) zeigte den stärksten Rückgang des Schlupferfolges unter Hitze- und Trockenstress. Ich konnte darlegen, dass die Stresstoleranz während der frühen Entwicklung von entscheidender Bedeutung für das Überleben der Arten unter dem Einfluss des Klimawandels sein kann. Das dritte Experiment untersuchte die Reaktionen auf simulierte Hitzewellen während der Larven- und Puppenentwicklung und die daraus resultierenden Fitnessimplikationen für Lycaena tityrus, L. dispar und L. helle. Obwohl sich die Arten signifikant in ihren Reaktionen in den Versuchsgruppen unterschieden, scheint eine solche Variation weitgehend durch Selektionsdrücke, die mit den spezifischen Entwicklungswegen assoziiert sind, bestimmt zu sein. Ich fand heraus, dass die simulierten Hitzewellen nur geringe Auswirkungen auf Fitness-Komponenten, einschließlich des Fettgehalts und der Immunfunktion, hatten. Folglich scheinen alle drei Arten in der Lage zu sein, mit den projizierten Veränderungen während ihrer Larven- und Puppenentwicklung zurechtzukommen. Studie 4 verglich die Plastizität in der Stresstoleranz im adulten Stadium in diesen drei Feuerfalterarten. Die phänotypische Plastizität ist die erste Verteidigungslinie gegen Umweltveränderungen und kann für das Überleben von Arten unter dem Einfluss des Klimawandels von großer Bedeutung sein. Im Gegensatz zu meinen Vorhersagen zeigten die drei untersuchten Arten keine ausgeprägte Variation der Stressresistenz, obwohl sich die plastischen Kapazitäten in der Temperaturstressresistenz unterschieden. Insgesamt schienen meine Ergebnisse eher die Populations- als die Art-spezifischen Muster wiederzugeben. Experiment 5 untersuchte mögliche Unterschiede in den direkten und indirekten Entwicklungswegen von L. tityrus. Wie im vierten Experiment fand ich dabei keinen Hinweis auf negative Auswirkungen erhöhter Temperaturen und Hitzewellen. Darüber hinaus unterschieden sich die Muster nicht zwischen sich direkt und vermutlich mehr zeitlich beschränkten sich indirekt entwickelnden Individuen. Ich vermute, dass Art-spezifische Eigenschaften wichtiger sein könnten als potenzielle zeitliche Beschränkungen. Die letzte Studie wurde durchgeführt, um die Auswirkungen der veränderten Winterbedingungen auf das Überleben von L. tityrus zu testen. Ich fand heraus, dass wärmere und feuchtere Winterbedingungen die Überlebensraten deutlich verminderten. Diese negativen Auswirkungen beschränkten sich jedoch auf das Überleben während der Diapause und hatten keinen messbaren Effekt für die spätere individuelle Fitness der Falter. Ich gehe davon aus, dass die Überwinterung ein wichtiger Faktor für die Anfälligkeit gegenüber dem Klimawandel ist. Um das Schicksal bestimmter Arten und Populationen unter dem voranschreitenden Klimawandel vorherzusagen, müssen zwingend mehr Daten zur Stresstoleranz in verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien, aus einem möglichst breiten Spektrum von Arten, zusammengetragen werden.
Abstract
Climate change may force organisms to adapt genetically or plastically to new environmental conditions. Invasive species show remarkable potential for rapid adaptation. The ovoviviparous New Zealand mud snail (NZMS), Potamopyrgus antipodarum, has successfully established across Europe with two clonally reproducing mitochondrial lineages since its arrival in the first half of the 19th century. Its remarkable variation in shell morphology was shown to be fitness relevant. We investigated the effects of temperature on shell morphology across 11 populations from Germany and the Iberian Peninsula in a common garden across three temperatures. We analyzed size and shape using geometric morphometrics. For both, we compared reaction norms and estimated heritabilities. For size, the interaction of temperature and haplotype explained about 50% of the total variance. We also observed more genotype by environment interactions indicating a higher degree of population differentiation than in shape. Across the three temperatures, size followed the expectations of the temperature‐size rule, with individuals growing larger in cold environments. Changes in shape may have compensated for changes in size affecting space for brooding embryos. Heritability estimates were relatively high. As indicated by the very low coefficients of variation for clonal repeatability (CVA), they can probably not be compared in absolute terms. However, they showed some sensitivity to temperature, in haplotype t more so than in z, which was only found in Portugal. The low CVA values indicate that genetic variation among European populations is still restricted with a low potential to react to selection. A considerable fraction of the genetic variation was due to differences between the clonal lineages. The NZMS has apparently not been long enough in Europe to accumulate significant genetic variation relevant for morphological adaptation. As temperature is obviously not the sole factor influencing shell morphology, their interaction will probably not be a factor limiting population persistence under a warming climate in Europe.
Presumably every organism on earth is involved in at least one mutualistic interaction with one or several other species. To interact with each other, the species need traits that provide benefits to the partner species. Surprisingly, the function of traits for the stabilization of mutualisms has rarely been investigated, despite of a general lack of knowledge how mutualisms are maintained. The aim of this work was to find functional traits, which stabilize the mutualism between a bat species and a carnivorous pitcher plant in Northern Borneo. Kerivoula hardwickii is the only bat species known to roost in pitcher-shaped trapping organs of Palaeotropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes). These bats fertilize the pitcher plant Nepenthes hemsleyana with their nutritious nitrogen-rich faeces while roosting inside the pitchers. The plants have outsourced capture and digestion of arthropod prey to the bats on which they strongly rely for nutrient acquisition. The bats in contrast are less dependent on their mutualism partner as they also roost in pitchers of two further Nepenthes species as well as in developing furled leaves of various plant species in the order Zingiberales. In earlier studies, we found that N. hemsleyana outcompetes alternative roosts by providing high-quality roosts for the bats. However, which traits exactly stabilize the mutualism between K. hardwickii and N. hemsleyana was still unclear. I found that both the bats and the pitcher plants show traits, which have the potential to stabilize their interaction. On the level of morphological traits, I found that the pitchers have a low fluid level and a particular shape that provide just enough roosting space for one individual of the solitary K. hardwickii, a mother with juvenile or a mating couple. The bats have enlarged thumb and foot pads that enable them to cling to the smooth surfaces of their roosts without using their claws. This avoids damage to the sensitive N. hemsleyana pitchers. On the level of communicational traits, again N. hemsleyana acquired morphological structures that act as effective ultrasound-reflectors, which guide the echo-orientating bats to the opening of the pitchers and help the bats to identify their mutualism partner. The bats’ calls on the other hand are characterized by extraordinary high starting frequencies and broad bandwidths, which enable K. hardwickii to easily locate pitchers of N. hemsleyana and other Nepenthes species in their dense habitats. Finally, on the level of behavioural traits the bats often but not always prefer their mutualism partner to other roosts when they can select roosts in their natural environment or in behavioural experiments. The reason for this behaviour seems to be a combination of 1) N. hemsleyana’s superior quality compared to alternative roosts and 2) different roosting traditions of the bats. In conclusion, the mutualism between bats and pitcher plants is asymmetric as N. hemsleyana is more dependent on K. hardwickii than vice versa. For the plants bat faeces present their most important nutrient source. In contrast, K. hardwickii can select between alternative roosting plants. This asymmetric dependency is reflected in the specifity and function of the traits that stabilize the mutualism in each of the two involved species. Especially on the morphological level, N. hemsleyana seems to have evolved several traits that perfectly fit to K. hardwickii. In contrast, the bats’ traits more generally facilitate their roosting in funnel-shaped plant structures and their occurrence in cluttered habitats. Thus, they are probably exaptations (i.e. traits that evolved for another reason) that are nevertheless functional and stabilize the mutualism with N. hemsleyana. This plant‘s superior roost quality is likely a consequence of the competition with alternative roosting plants and is a pre-requisite for the bats to prefer N. hemsleyana. Moreover, my study confirms earlier findings that asymmetric dependencies support the stabilization of mutualistic interactions. Finally, my work indicates that the specifity of functional traits can be used as a measure to determine mutual dependencies of mutualistic partners.
Bats belong to the most gregarious and diverse mammals with highly complex social behaviors. Despite extensive research on their ecology and social behavior in some bat species, gained insights are restricted to only few of the more than 1300 species. In the recent past, bats have also become a central topic of a different branch of research: Since the 1990s bats came to the fore of virologists and immunologists due to the bats’ apparent importance as reservoir hosts and vectors of several (mostly tropical) diseases. While this research is focused mainly on emerging infectious diseases linked to bats, and their zoonotic potential, little has been invested regarding the link between disease transmission and bat social systems.
In my work, I aim at filling this gap by merging automated daily roosting observations, social network analysis, and a virological screening in Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri). In a collaborative approach, my co-workers and I analyzed the social structure of individually marked Natterer’s bats, their astrovirus detection rate and transmission pathways within their colony, as well as roosting interactions between different co-occurring con- and heterospecific bat colonies.
We discovered Natterer’s bats to display a very divergent social network structure that contradicts the findings of previous studies on large fission-fusion groups. Contrary to the modular social network structure found in e.g. primates or other bats species, the social network of Natterer’s bats consists of only one highly interconnected community. Moreover, although the close proximity between bat hosts in the colony should strongly promote direct transmission, we found indications that astrovirus infections follow at least partly an indirect transmission pathway via contaminated roost use. Lastly, our results prove that co-occurring con- and heterospecific bat colonies, e.g. as in this study Natterer’s bats, brown long-eared bats and Bechstein’s bats, can influence each other in their roost use by avoiding conspecific roosts and by being attracted towards those of heterospecifics. This holds implication for the transmission of parasites and pathogens within and between different colonies with opportunities for spillovers. To conclude, this multidisciplinary study led to valuable insights in the hitherto hidden mechanisms within and among bat colonies.
Dwarf spiders (Linyphiidae, Erigoninae) are especially suitable for sexual selection research as many of them exhibit sexual dimorphism, with males possessing modified prosomata. In those species that have been investigated in detail the modified structures are equipped with a glandular tissue that produces secretions, which the females contact and take up during courtship/copulation. The time of secretion release, and refilling of the reservoirs was analysed on an ultrastructural level in male Oedothorax retusus. The results suggest that the main function of the secretions is gustatorial courtship and not the emission of volatile pheromones for mate attraction. Mating decisions and reproductive success are influenced by secondary sexual traits that evolved under sexual selection. However, an individual´s nutritional status is also important for mate choice. Since spiders are regularly exposed to limited prey availability, adult feeding status can be considered an important component of spider mating behaviour. In order to test for the effects of dietary restriction, females of the closely related species O. retusus and O. apicatus were subject to a short period of food shortage. The effects of low- (LD) vs. high-diet (HD) treatment on courtship, mating probability and behaviour, and reproduction were analysed. We found that short phases of diet restriction as adults have a high impact on copulation and reproduction in the two dwarf spider species. Whenever females mate with more than one male, and sperm is stored prior to fertilization, males may suffer from sperm competition. Mating plugs that block the female genital openings after mating are a male strategy to avoid sperm competition. Although mating plugs occur in many species, their function and origin has hardly been investigated. O. retusus males transfer amorphous material onto the female genitalia during mating. We investigated the location of plug production using x-ray microtomography (μCT) as well as light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Furthermore, we asked whether males are limited in the production of the amorphous plug material in successive matings. The plug material is produced in a gland inside the male pedipalp and stored close to the blind end of the sperm storage compartment. The size of the first plug a male produced significantly influenced the size of subsequent plugs. Obviously, males do not possess unlimited amounts of plug material in a certain period, which may severely limit their ability to secure paternity through subsequent mating plugs. Even though mating plugs seem to be an obvious means to secure paternity, their potential in securing paternity depends on their mechanical efficacy and persistence. Consequently, the influence of the size of the plug material (mating duration as a proxy) and the age of the mating plug (time interval between successive copulations) on its efficacy was investigated. Small and fresh plugs were least effective, whereas large plugs were highly effective. We were able to show that mating plugs in O. retusus are a powerful mechanical safeguard whose efficacy varies with plug size and age. Genitalia in animals with internal fertilization are complex, species-specific, and underlie rapid evolution. In spiders, male and female genitalia are paired, and have to interact during mating, which results in an even higher complexity. Pedipalps (transformed pair of legs) in male spiders are used as secondary sperm transfer organs that are not directly connected to the gonads. Due to the high complexity of male pedipalps, it has been taken for granted that pedipalps are side specific and cannot be used flexibly into either female copulatory opening. We investigated potential flexible pedipalp use in O. retusus. Our findings demonstrate a flexible insertion mode in a dwarf spider with complex pedipalps but relatively simple female genitalia. Our findings corroborate sexual selection as the selective regime for the evolution of complex and diverse genitalia. The results of this thesis show how complex sexual selection acts in the dwarf spiders O. retusus and O. apicatus. It shapes the evolution of male and female genitalia, affects mate choice (pre- and postcopulatory), mating behaviour, and influences mating success and reproduction. All these factors and traits affect an individual´s evolutionary fitness, and their interactions help to understand how sexual selection acts.
The Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) is one of Germany’s farthest migrating bird species. Ringing studies have shown the use of the East Atlantic flyway, and according to their main wintering areas at the western and southern African coasts, German and European Common Tern populations have been divided into two allohiemic groups. However, first ring recoveries of German Common Terns in Israel indicated that some of the birds breeding in eastern Germany cross central Europe and migrate along the eastern African coast. To investigate the migratory behavior of Common Terns from East Germany, we fitted 40 Common Terns breeding in a colony at the German Baltic coast with light-level geolocators. Twenty-four loggers with analyzable datasets could be retrieved, revealing two different migratory strategies within one population. Seventeen individuals (70.83%) used the eastern Atlantic flyway and spent the winter at the western African coast, the Gulf of Guinea and the southern African coast, while the other individuals (n = 7; 29.17%) crossed central Europe, migrated along the eastern African coast and overwintered in the Mozambique Channel and South African coast. We, therefore, suggest to add a third allohiemic group to complement the picture of European Common Tern migration. Moreover, our results provide new knowledge and open new questions, which can be used for future studies regarding the evolution of different migratory strategies and its consequences in relation to climate change.
Relative importance of plastic and genetic responses to weather conditions in long-lived bats
(2022)
In the light of the accelerating pace of environmental change, it is imperative to understand how populations and species can adapt to altered environmental conditions. This is a crucial step in predicting current and future population persistence and limits thereof. Genetic adaption and phenotypic plasticity are two main mechanisms that can mediate the process of adaptation and are of particular importance for non-dispersing species. While phenotypic plasticity may enable individuals to cope with short term environmental changes, genetic adaptation will often be required for populations to survive in situ over longer time spans. However, a rapid genetic response is expected particularly in species with fast life histories or large population sizes, leaving species with slow life histories potentially at higher extinction risk. The Bechstein’s bat (Myotis bechsteinii) is a mammal of 10 g weight that - despite its small size - is characterized by a slow life history, with low reproductive output and long lifespan, and is already considered to be of high conservation concern. Past work demonstrated body size to be a highly fitness-relevant trait in Bechstein’s bats. Body size is further known to be a pivotal trait shaping the pace of life histories in numerous species. Simultaneously, many studies reported noteworthy changes in body size as a response to shifting environments across different taxa. This suggested a potential for high plasticity in this trait in Bechstein’s bats as well; however, changes in body size could have vital impacts on demographic rates.
Therefore, this dissertation investigated the following questions: firstly, what shapes the fundamental development of body size in M. bechsteinii, and, specifically, is there an impact of weather conditions on body size? If so, in what form and magnitude? Secondly, how does body size subsequently influence the pace of life in females? What is the cost of a faster or slower pace of life, and how does fitness compare across individuals with slow and fast life histories? And finally, to what extent can changes in body size be attributed to either phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation? What is the evolutionary potential of body size in the populations? And, consequently, what implications can we draw regarding population persistence of these colonies?
To answer these questions, we analyzed a long-term dataset of over two decades collected from four wild Bechstein’s bat colonies. We used individual-based data on survival, reproduction and body size, built multi-generational pedigrees, and combined everything with meteorological data. In Manuscript 1 we found that, in contrast to the declining body size observed in many species, body size in Bechstein’s bats increased significantly over the last decades. We demonstrated that ambient temperature was linked to the development of body size and identified a sensitive time period in the prenatal growth phase, in which body size was most susceptible to the impact of temperature. We established that warmer summers resulted in larger bats, but that these large bats had higher mortality risks throughout their lives. Manuscript 2 then revealed the influence of body size on the pace of life in Bechstein’s bats and demonstrated high plasticity in intraspecific life history strategies. Large females were characterized by a faster pace of life and shorter lifespans, but surprisingly, lifetime reproductive success remained remarkably stable across individuals with different body sizes. The acceleration of their pace of life means that larger females compensated for their reduced longevity by an earlier reproduction and higher fecundity to reach similar overall fitness. Ultimately, differences in body size resulted in changes in population growth rate via the impact of size on generation times. Results of Manuscript 3 were then able to clarify the extent to which changes in body size were founded on either phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation. We demonstrated a particularly low heritability in hot summers, indicating that variance in body size was mostly driven by phenotypic plasticity, with few genetic constraints. During cold summers, behavioural adaptations by reproducing bats seem to be able to mitigate negative effects of cold temperatures. These behaviours, such as social aggregation or preference for warm roosts, are, however, essentially irrelevant in hot environments. In addition, a low evolvability of forearm length points to a low capacity to respond to selection pressures associated with the trait.
We can conclude that body size in M. bechsteinii has increased over the last two decades as a response to global warming and is only slightly constrained by its genetic underpinnings. We can further demonstrate a direct link between body size and the pace of life histories in the Bechstein’s bat populations and how changes in body size impact demographic rates via this linkage. In the context of climate change and hotter summers, our findings consequently suggest that body size will likely increase further if warm summers continue to become more frequent. Whether this plastic response of body size proves to be adaptive in the long term, however, remains to be seen. While, up to this point, switching to a faster life history has been successful in compensating fitness losses, this strategy requires sufficient habitat quality and is likely risky in times when extreme weather events are becoming more frequent, as predicted by most climate change scenarios.
Heutige Vertreter der Insekten haben vielfältige Lebensweisen und Verhaltensstrategien entwickelt, wie beispielsweise zur Ernährung, zum Schutz gegen Fressfeinde, zu Reproduktionsstrategien und die Investition in Nachkommen. Um die Evolution dieser Strategien besser zu verstehen, kann die Einbeziehung von Fossilien wertvolle Hinweise liefern. So können fossile Überreste von Organismen oder Strukturen, welche von ihnen zu Lebzeiten verursacht wurden, für eine Rekonstruktion über das erstmalig zeitgeschichtliche Auftreten und der Entwicklung einer Strategie genutzt werden. Da jedoch die Untersuchung des Verhaltens von heute nicht mehr lebenden Organismen nicht möglich ist, können Hinweise dazu nur indirekt geschlussfolgert werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden daher folgende Aspekte näher beleuchtet und für Rekonstruktionen genutzt: (1) Die phylogenetische Position von fossilen Vertreten, (2) Spurenfossilien, (3) Gemeinsame Fossilisation mehrerer Individuen, (4) “Frozen Behaviour“, (5) Fossilisierte Eier und Ei-assoziierte Strukturen, sowie (6) Morphologische Anpassungen als Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit. Die Anwendbarkeit und Limitationen der jeweiligen Ansätze wurden im Rahmen von Rekonstruktionen zu Aspekten von Raubverhalten und Reproduktionsstrategien (im Zusammenhang mit der Investition in die Nachkommen) von verschiedenen Vertretern der Arthropoden diskutiert.
Die Insektengruppe Dictyoptera, welche die Gruppen Mantodea und Blattodea umfasst, hat sich als besonders geeignet für die Rekonstruktion von Verhaltensaspekten unter den genannten Aspekten und Ansätzen gezeigt. Heutige Dictyopteren zeigen eine enorme Spannbreite von verschiedenen Lebensweisen, von räuberisch und solitär lebend bei Mantiden, über verschiedene Abstufungen von Sozialverhalten bei Schaben, bis hin zur Eusozialität der Termiten (als Innengruppe der Blattodea). Des Weiteren ist diese Gruppe durch eine bemerkenswerte Autapomorphie gekennzeichnet, die Ablage von Eiern in einer Art kompakten Paket (Oothek). Die Ootheken von Dictyopteren sind sehr robust und wurden, wenn auch selten, fossil gefunden. Die Rekonstruktion des Ursprungs der Fähigkeit,
Ootheken zu bilden, stellt ein Schlüsselmerkmal in der Rekonstruktion der evolutionären Entwicklung der gesamten Gruppe dar. Weitere Betrachtungen im Rahmen dieser Arbeit beleuchten die Entwicklung der Gruppe der Mantiden und deren Spezialisierung auf eine räuberische Lebensweise, wie sie bei heutigen Vertretern zu beobachten ist.
Innerhalb der Proteinfamilien der Antistasine und der Hirudine konnte ein breites Spektrum von Faktoren identifiziert werden. Obwohl die Funktionen dieser Hirudin-ähnlichen Faktoren (HLF) aus Hirudo sp. und Hirudinaria manillensis, sowie des Antistasin-ähnlichen Faktors (ALF) aus Hirudo verbana, bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt unbekannt waren, könnte der hohe Grad an Übereinstimmung zu den Antistasinen bzw. Hirudinen bezüglich ihrer Genstruktur und Aminosäuresequenzen auf eine Anpassung der Blutegel auf ihr Wirtsspektrum hindeuten. So ist es mit der funktionellen Charakterisierung von rekombinanten Formen dieser Speicheldrüsenproteine möglich, die Frage zu beantworten, weshalb der Blutegel nicht nur einen potenten Inhibitor für die jeweiligen Faktoren der Blutgerinnung in seinen Speicheldrüsen sekretiert, sondern wohl möglich eine Vielzahl variierender Faktoren vorliegen.
Eukaryotische Zellen epithelialer Herkunft besitzen die Fähigkeit, nach einem von außen einwirkenden mitogenen Stimulus die Ruhephase des Zellzyklus zu verlassen und in einen Teilungsprozess einzutreten. Dieser streng regulierte Prozess wird unter anderem von einem als p27Kip1 bezeichneten Protein kontrolliert. Ein Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 ist Voraussetzung für das Verlassen der Ruhephase und das Eintreten der Zellen in die Phase der DNA – Synthese. Die Ubiquitinylierung von p27Kip1 mit einer nachfolgenden Degradation durch das Proteasom gilt als wesentlicher, wenn nicht sogar als Hauptmechanismus dieses Prozesses. Die Mechanismen, die zu einer Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in Zellen nach einem mitogenen Stimulus führen, wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit an zwei Modellen untersucht: den Zellen der Nasendrüse von Enten (Anas platyrhynchos) nach einer erstmaligen osmotischen Belastung des Tieres sowie den Zellen des regenerierenden Leberparenchyms von Ratten (Rattus norwegicus) nach einer partiellen Hepatektomie. Aus vorherigen Arbeiten war bekannt, dass in beiden Modellsystemen eine Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 auftritt. In Zellen der Nasendrüse ist nach Einwirkung eines mitogenen Stimulus eine leichte Alkalinisierung des Zytosol zu beobachten. In umfangreichen Versuchsreihen konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass diese Verschiebung des pH – Wertes zu einer erhöhten Aktivität der ubiquitinylierenden Enzyme in Zellen der Nasendrüse führt, was zu einem verstärkten Abbau von p27Kip1 beiträgt. Dieser Effekt konnte in Zellen des Leberparenchyms von Ratten tendenziell auch beobachtet, jedoch nicht statistisch abgesichert werden. Bedeutsam in diesem Zusammenhang ist es, dass ein pH – modulatorischer Effekt verschiedener als Mitogene bekannter Pharmaka auf Leberzellen nicht beziehungsweise nicht sicher gezeigt werden konnte. Dies deutete bereits an, dass die Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in beiden Modellsystemen nach zum Teil differierenden Mechanismen erfolgt. Bestätigt wurde dies durch den Nachweis einer Verminderung der mRNA von p27Kip1 in Zellen der regenerierenden Leber, was für eine transkriptionale Regulation spricht. Ein solcher Effekt konnte in vorhergehenden Arbeiten in den Zellen der Nasendrüse nicht gezeigt werden. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gesammelten Daten sprechen also dafür, dass die Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in den Zellen der Nasendrüse vorwiegend über eine Ubiquitin – vermittelte Degradation durch das Proteasom erfolgt, während in den Zellen der Leber transkriptionale Prozesse die Hauptrolle spielen, eine Verstärkung des Effektes durch eine beschleunigte Degradation jedoch möglich ist. Ein weiterer Teil der Arbeit befasste sich mit der Untersuchung struktureller Prozesse im Lebergewebe nach einer partiellen Hepatektomie. Dabei konnte eine Korrelation von gewebs- und zellmorphologischen Veränderungen mit der zeitlichen Dynamik der Verminderung an p27Kip1 sowie der Expression eines als Proliferationsmarker bekannten Proteins, Ki-67, gezeigt werden. Dies ermöglichte die Entwicklung eines zeitlich gut aufgelösten Modells der der Regeneration von Lebergewebe nach partieller Hepatektomie zugrunde liegenden dynamischen Prozesse.
Abstract
Aim
Species ranges are highly dynamic, shifting in space and time as a result of complex ecological and evolutionary processes. Disentangling the relative contribution of both processes is challenging but of primary importance for forecasting species distributions under climate change. Here, we use the spectacular range expansion (ca. 1000 km poleward shift within 10 years) of the butterfly Pieris mannii to unravel the factors underlying range dynamics, specifically the role of (i) niche evolution (changes in host‐plant preference and acceptance) and (ii) ecological processes (climate change).
Location
Provence‐Alpes‐Côte d’Azur, France; North Rhine‐Westphalia, Rhineland‐Palatinate and Hesse, Germany.
Taxon
Insect and angiosperms.
Methods
We employed a combination of (i) common garden experiments, based on replicated populations from the species’ historical and newly established range and host‐plant species representative for each distribution range, co‐occurrence analyses and (ii) grid‐based correlative species distribution modelling (SDM) using Maxent.
Results
We observed changes in oviposition preference, with females from the newly established populations showing reduced host‐plant specialization and also an overall increased fecundity. These changes in behaviour and life history may have enabled using a broader range of habitats and thus facilitated the recent range expansion. In contrast, our results indicate that the range expansion is unlikely to be directly caused by anthropogenic climate change, as the range was not constrained by climate in the first place.
Main conclusions
We conclude that evolution of a broader dietary niche rather than climate change is associated with the rapid range expansion, and discuss potential indirect consequences of climate change as trigger for the genetic differences found. Our study thus illustrates the importance of species interactions in shaping species distributions and range shifts, and draws attention to indirect effects of climate change. Embracing this complexity is likely the key to a better understanding of range dynamics.
Background
The ‘wallflower’ hypothesis proposes females mate indiscriminately to avoid reproductive delays. Post-copulatory mechanisms may then allow ‘trading up’, favouring paternity of future mates. We tested links between pre- and post-copulatory choice in Latrodectus geometricus female spiders paired sequentially with two males. These females copulate as adults or as subadults and store sperm in paired spermathecae. Choosy adults have a higher risk of delays to reproduction than subadults.
Results
We predicted low pre-copulatory, but high post-copulatory choice at first matings for adults and the opposite for subadults. At second matings, we expected all females would prefer males superior to their first. We found all females mated indiscriminately at their first pairing, but in contrast to subadults, adults usually allowed only a single insertion (leaving one of their paired spermatheca empty); a mechanism of post-copulatory choosiness. Adult-mated females were more likely to remate than subadult-mated females when they became adults, showing a preference for larger males, while subadult-mated females tended to prefer males of greater size-corrected mass.
Conclusions
Our results show that the ‘wallflower’ effect and ‘trading up’ tactics can be utilized at different life stages, allowing females to employ choice even if rejecting males is costly.
In times of recent climate change, mechanisms to deal with different environments (e.g. via dispersal to other habitats, or via in-situ responses such as genetic adaptation or phenotypic plasticity) are essential. In regions showing seasonality, organisms are already adapted to regular and, thus, often predictable environmental changes. One well-known strategy to survive periods of food shortage, especially during the winter, is hibernation. Although hibernation is already an adaptation to overcome unfavourable conditions, the optimal timing of hibernation to match for example food abundance peaks is likely to be influenced by changing climatic conditions, as expected during human-induced global change. Thus, the ability to respond to changes in optimal timing of hibernation can be crucial for organisms. All hibernators are positioned at the slow end of the slow-fast life history continuum. Longevity combined with a low annual reproductive output can result in slow recovery from population crashes and is expected to be associated with slow genetic adaptation. Therefore, it is assumed that phenotypic plasticity, a rather rapid and sometimes reversible process, is a crucial mechanism in long-lived organisms to adapt to changing environments. However, how differences in individual hibernation behaviour influence mortality and whether individuals are plastic with respect to their hibernation behaviour are largely unknown.
Recent studies suggest that climatic change can influence hibernation behaviour in various species differently, in a positive or negative way. Female Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus) delayed their emergence from hibernation with later snow melt and lower spring temperatures. Next to the environmental impact, emergence date showed a moderate heritability in female Columbian ground squirrels. Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) emerged earlier from hibernation with warmer spring temperatures which resulted in a longer growing period for their offspring and, therefore, higher survival rates. In contrast, in alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) lower snow cover due to higher temperatures and, thus, less isolation led to lower juvenile survival. Negative effects, such as reduced juvenile survival, would be of high concern, especially for long-lived species with a low reproductive output.
Bats are exceptionally long-lived compared to other mammals of the same size and often show a low reproductive output with one offspring per year. This is especially true in the temperate zone where bats, furthermore, are characterized by seasonality and depend on hibernation during winter period to survive food and water shortage. Because bats are of high conservation concern it is of prime importance to understand their ability to respond to different climatic conditions and associated mortality costs.
The basis of this study was a five-year data set of 1047 RFID-tagged individuals from two bat species, Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri) and Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii), that were automatically tracked when entering or leaving the joint hibernaculum, “Brunnen Meyer”, located in north-western Germany. The two species are similar sized, share demographical traits and often occupy the same areas. Nevertheless, they differ in their foraging strategy and activity pattern during hibernation period. Natterer’s bats are able to glean insects from surfaces, even at low temperatures. Daubenton’s bats depend on flying arthropods and, thus, warmer temperatures. And indeed there is evidence that Natterer’s bats are able to hunt during hibernation period, while in Daubenton’s bats a lack of feeding during the hibernation period is suggested. Furthermore, Natterer’s bats are characterized by a higher activity at the hibernaculum throughout the hibernation period, while Daubenton’s bats on average arrive earlier, stay inactive through the winter and leave later in spring.
In both species, the aim was to investigate the impact of their individual hibernation behaviour, precisely the timing of departure in late winter and early spring, on mortality, their adjustment of departure timing to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO), as well as differences within and between the two species from 2011 until 2015.
To later on estimate the potential mortality costs of departure timing, gaining knowledge about the seasonal survival pattern (winter vs. summer) in the two species was a first necessity. In birds, particularly small species were described as winter-regulated populations with a higher mortality during winter. In contrast, in hibernating mammal species, such as bats, a relatively lower or similar winter survival compared to summer survival was shown. In this study, the analysed data demonstrated that the winter 2010/2011 was exceptionally catastrophic in Natterer’s bats and did not impact Daubenton’s bats. When excluding this catastrophic winter in Natterer’ bats, our results revealed a stable winter-summer-survival difference (higher winter and lower summer survival) in adult Natterer’s and Daubenton’s bats, with inter-annual variation in the level of survival which indicates a potential environmental impact on survival. This winter-summer survival pattern is in line with the survival pattern shown for other hibernators. Juveniles always had a lower survival rate than adult bats in both species. Nevertheless, the extent to which the species differ between seasons and age classes was stronger in Daubenton’s bats. They always showed a slightly higher winter survival and a lower summer survival than Natterer’s bats. Together with the catastrophic winter 2010/2011 in Natterer’s bats, this indicates a species-specific sensitivity to the timing of specific weather events which is in line with their foraging strategies and activity pattern during hibernation period.
With respect to emergence behaviour from the hibernaculum, the results of this study suggest considerable differences among individuals within as well as between bat species. In comparison to Daubenton’s bats, Natterer’s bats tuned their emergence more closely to weather conditions, specifically the NAO, a large scale weather index related to winter severity, and showed individual variation in behavioural plasticity. In Daubenton’s bats only the females responded to changing conditions and left earlier in individually-experienced warmer and milder winters, comparable to Natterer’s bats females. A potential reason might be reproductive advantages for the females resulting in a longer growing period for their offspring. The shown higher winter survival in adult bats of both species indicated already higher energy expenditure outside the hibernaculum. Thus, leaving early, being active and staying outside longer by itself bore a risk (exposure risk effect). Under consideration of longer exposure times, early departing individuals had on top of that an increased risk to die. This was not given in each year, but a species- and year-specific pattern was revealed. Natterer’s bats were only significantly affected by early departure in 2011, while the remaining years show no significant additional risk of leaving early. In Daubenton’s bats, the years 2014 and 2015 were associated with a significantly higher mortality of leaving early. This is in line with the hypothesis that Daubenton’s bats might not be able to hunt for insects leaving too early and do so as a best out of a bad job. Nevertheless, the year-specific pattern suggests that early bats might profit from advantageous weather conditions during early spring.
An additional hint for an environmental impact on early bat survival in at least Daubenton’s bats is that the median proportion of night hours above 3 °C within five days after departure was included in the model with the lowest AIC. However, the effect was not strong enough to be selected as the best model and, therefore, further analyses are needed to investigate this first hint.
In conclusion, the reduced winter survival of juveniles compared to adults highlights the importance of considering age class effects in studies that investigate seasonal survival patterns. The stable species-specific winter-summer-survival difference with a higher winter survival compared to summer survival, as well as the one catastrophic winter in Natterer’s bats underline the importance of including seasonal survival patterns in assessing potential fitness costs of changed behaviour. Furthermore, our results suggest that long-lived hibernating bat species have the potential to plastically adjust to changing climatic conditions, but this potential differs between species. Among-individual differences in emergence together with species-specific mortality costs of early emergence suggest the potential for natural selection to shape hibernation phenology. In summary, our findings suggest species-, population- and group-specific differences in the ability to respond to changing environments and, therefore, underline the necessity to further investigate local responses in various organisms to estimate consequences of recent climate change on a wider range.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Verbreitung und Populationsgenetik der invasiven asiatischen Buschmücke Ae. j. japonicus, die sich seit 2008 durch Menschen-vermittelten Transport in Deutschland ausbreitet. Aedes j. japonicus ist unter Laborbedingungen Vektor für verschiedene Viren, unter anderem für das Dengue-Virus und das Chikungunya-Virus, und wurde im Feld mit dem Japanische Enzephalitis-Virus, dem West Nil-Virus und dem La Crosse-Virus infiziert gefunden. 2012 wurde aufgrund mehrerer unabhängiger Mücken-Einsendungen im Rahmen des Citizen-Science-Projekts “Mückenatlas” eine Population der Asiatischen Buschmücke in Westdeutschland entdeckt. Das Verbreitungsgebiet dieser Population befand sich weit nördlich der bisher angenommenen nördlichen Verbreitungsgrenze der Art in Süddeutschland. Das Ausmaß der Population wurde nach einem zeitlich begrenzten Monitoring auf eine Fläche von ca. 2000 km2 bestimmt. Aus dieser Population wurden Individuen von fünf Orten populationsgenetischen Analysen unterzogen, um verwandtschaftliche Beziehungen innerhalb der Population und im Vergleich zu anderen europäischen Populationen aufzudecken. Hierzu wurden sieben Mikrosatelliten-Loci untersucht. Zusätzlich wurde ein Teil der mitochondrialen nad4-Genregion der Individuen auf Nukleotid-Polymorphismen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit bereits zuvor erhobenen Daten von Populationen aus der Schweiz, aus Österreich/Slowenien und Belgien verglichen. Die Mikrosatellitensignatur der westdeutschen Population unterschied sich deutlich von der der anderen europäischen Populationen. Weiterhin wurden verschiedene nad4-Haplotypen gefunden, die zuvor nirgendwo sonst in Europa aufgetreten waren. Demnach ist zu vermuten, dass diese Population auf eine unabhängige Einschleppung von Individuen aus Übersee zurückgeht. Der genaue Ursprung – USA oder Ostasien – konnte nicht bestimmt werden. 2013 wurden zwei weitere Ae. j. japonicus-Populationen in Europa entdeckt: eine in Norddeutschland und eine weitere in den Niederlanden. Die genetischen Signaturen von Individuen dieser Populationen wurden wie beschrieben analysiert. Zusätzlich wurde das genetische Material einer größeren Menge von Individuen aus Slowenien sowie von Individuen aus Kroatien und Süddeutschland untersucht. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit denen aus der vorigen Studie verglichen und zeigten aufgrund einer ähnlichen Mikrosatellitensignatur und gleicher nad4-Haplotypen klar, dass die norddeutsche Population eine Subpopulation der westdeutschen ist. Die geringe Populationsdichte und die vergleichsweise kleine Ausdehnung der norddeutschen Population deuten außerdem darauf hin, dass die Abspaltung nicht lange zurückliegt. Die niederländische Population scheint hingegen auf einer weiteren Einschleppung von Individuen aus Übersee zu basieren. Im Spätsommer 2015 wurde die bisher letzte deutsche Ae. j. japonicus-Population in Oberbayern und dem angrenzenden Österreich entdeckt. Populationsgenetischen Analysen zufolge ist diese Population eng mit der früher beschriebenen österreichisch-slowenischen Population verwandt und unterscheidet sich von allen anderen deutschen Populationen, was darauf schließen lässt, dass es sich bei ihr um eine Abspaltung von der österreichisch-slowenischen Population handelt. Die Ver- und Ausbreitung von Ae. j. japonicus in West- und Norddeutschland wurde vom Zeitpunkt der Entdeckung in 2012/2013 bis 2015 beobachtet. In dieser Periode erweiterte die westdeutsche Population ihr Verbreitungsgebiet beträchtlich, während die norddeutsche überhaupt nicht zu expandieren schien. Dies ist möglicherweise darauf zurückzuführen, dass die norddeutsche Population jünger als die westdeutsche ist, das Verschleppungsereignis noch nicht so weit zurückliegt und die Population sich noch in der Gründerphase befindet. Die passive weltweite Verschleppung von Stechmücken wird in der Zukunft vermutlich zunehmen, und die Etablierung und Ausbreitung invasiver Spezies, inklusive der Asiatischen Buschmücke und anderer potenzieller Überträger von Krankheitserregern, werden Europa und Deutschland weiterhin vor herausfordernde Probleme stellen. Das Monitoring der Ausbreitung von Populationen und die Durchführung populationsgenetischer Analysen zur Ermittlung von geographischen Ursprüngen sowie von Wanderungs- und Transportrouten werden helfen, weitere Einschleppungs- und Ausbreitungsereignisse nachzuvollziehen und zu unterbinden und sind daher essenzielle Instrumente des Managements von Mückenvektoren.
Abstract
Relatively little is known about how plant–soil feedbacks (PSFs) may affect plant growth in field conditions where factors such as herbivory may be important. Using a potted experiment in a grassland, we measured PSFs with and without aboveground insect herbivory for 20 plant species. We then compared PSF values to plant landscape abundance. Aboveground herbivory had a large negative effect on PSF values. For 15 of 20 species, PSFs were more negative with herbivory than without. This occurred because plant biomass on “home” soils was smaller with herbivory than without. PSF values with herbivory were correlated with plant landscape abundance, whereas PSF values without herbivory were not. Shoot nitrogen concentrations suggested that plants create soils that increase nitrogen uptake, but that greater shoot nitrogen values increase herbivory and that the net effect of positive PSF and greater aboveground herbivory is less aboveground biomass. Results provided clear evidence that PSFs alone have limited power in explaining species abundances and that herbivory has stronger effects on plant biomass and growth on the landscape. Our results provide a potential explanation for observed differences between greenhouse and field PSF experiments and suggest that PSF experiments need to consider important biotic interactions, like aboveground herbivory, particularly when the goal of PSF research is to understand plant growth in field conditions.
Recent climate change and its consequences for living organisms constitute one of the greatest problems of our century. Global warming entails an increase in mean temperature and the frequencies of extreme weather events. Those changes in environmental conditions affect both plants and animals. Because of their inability to escape from unsuitable environments, plants have evolved a wide spectrum of molecular programs to protect themselves against changing conditions. Responding on altered environmental conditions will change plants chemical composition and therefore also affect plants interaction with other species (e.g., predator-prey or symbiotic relationships). For instance, changes in the chemical composition of plants may influence the survival of associated herbivores. In other words, these herbivores will be affected indirectly by climate change due to changes in the suitability / quality of their food. The aim of this doctoral thesis was to discover the effects of climate change within the relationship of the butterfly Pieris napi and its host plant (Sinapis alba used here as host plant), including individual conditions (e.g. chemical compositions of plants; morphology, physiology of the butterfly) and behavior of female butterflies and larvae. In the first experiment, the influence of simulated climate change on the chemical composition of the plant Sinapis alba was investigated. The second experiment aimed to examine the influence of changes in plant composition on the butterfly P. napi. Glucosinolates (secondary compound of plants) are known to have an important effect on the preference and performance of herbivores. Therefore, in the third experiment, the impact of glucosinolates on the preference and performance of P. napi was investigated in order to see if these plant compounds had the most important influence on this butterfly. Furthermore, in the fourth experiment, it was explored whether there is a latitudinal gradient within the species´ responses to changes in its host plant. The fifth and last experiment aimed to examine, if there are general principles across species regarding indirect effects of climate change.
Climate change, simulated by different combinations of temperature and water regimes, had an effect on the plant chemistry. The combination of temperature and water availability changed plant composition substantially. Especially the amount of carbon and glucosinolates (here above all sinalbin) in S. alba plants varies between the different treatments and therefore between the different combinations of temperature and water regimes. Regarding glucosinolates, elevated temperatures increased their concentration in leaves, whereas water deficit in combination with higher temperature reversed this pattern. For carbon content, all plants, except those of the control group, showed a decreased amount of total carbon. However, simulated heat waves had no effect on plants, leading to the assumption that the plants were able to recover from heat stress sufficiently during the control phases. Changes in plant composition affected both larvae and females of the butterfly P. napi. Therefore, changed host-plant chemistry alters the plant quality for this herbivore, meaning that plants of different treatments represent different plant qualities defined by their composition. Females of P. napi may be able to differentiate between plant qualities and even show a direct preference. Therefore, glucosinolates seem to act as oviposition stimulants. However, preferring another plant quality with lower amount of glucosinolates suggest that females of this butterfly species were attracted by more than high levels of glucosinolates alone. Larvae fed with different plant qualities performed differently, indicated by smaller wings (lighter bodies) and prolonged development when fed with plants contained higher amount of the glucosinolate sinalbin. It can be assumed that a higher amount of sinalbin decreases the quality of the host plant and therefore lead to these responses. Probably larvae need to shift their resources from growth to detoxification and therewith survival. Furthermore, drought conditions during plant growth seem to reduce the overall negative effects of higher temperatures, lead to an increase of host plant quality. Larvae seem to benefit from feeding on these “double-stressed” plants. Comparison between the results of the preference and performance tests suggests that there might be a mismatch between female preference and larval performance. It seems that the stimulating effect of high concentration of glucosinolates, in this case sinalbin, misdirects females´ decision to less suitable host plants, meaning that the advantage of less competition for larvae come at costs through detoxification. Using Brassica napus plants with genetically fixed glucosinolate levels, it could be demonstrate that there must be other plant components influencing females´ oviposition behavior been seen in the choice experiment with S. alba. The comparison of German and Italian populations to changes in host-plant quality showed fewer differences between countries as expected. However, German and Italian individuals differed in their reaction to altered plant quality, at least in developmental time and larval growth rate. It seems that Italian larvae benefitted from plants grown under higher temperatures, whereas drought-stressed plants affected them negatively. German individuals in contrast seem to benefit only from water stress during plant growth. With regard to the sexes of P. napi, it seems that females respond differently than males to changes in plant quality. Furthermore, the results of the performance test on Bicyclus anynana showed that there might be some general principles for the respond of butterflies to changes of its host plant. B. anynana responded in a similar way to different host plant qualities as P. napi did, meaning that plants grown under higher temperatures and drought conditions seem to be beneficial for the larval performance.
In summary, these findings may have important implications for the indirect effects of climate change on this butterfly in natural environments. First, climate change seems to have an impact on the chemical composition of plants. Second, changes in plants caused by increasing temperature and droughts seem to influence the preference and performance of this butterfly. However, there are differences between populations, which seem to be induced by former adaptation. And third, there might be some general principles for the respond of butterflies to changes in their host plants. This thesis focuses only on possible indirect effects of climate change. However, there are direct effects, which may alter the responses of herbivores to changes in their host plant as well. Therefore, further investigations in this linkage and in other plant-herbivore relationships will be necessary to explore how climate change may alter the relationship between herbivores and their hosts.
In a changing world, phytoplankton communities face a large variety of challenges including altered light regimes. These alterations are caused by more pronounced stratification due to rising temperatures, enhanced eutrophication, and browning of lakes. Community responses toward these effects can emerge as alterations in physiology, biomass, biochemical composition, or diversity. In this study, we addressed the combined effects of changes in light and nutrient conditions on community responses. In particular, we investigated how light intensity and variability under two nutrient conditions influence (1) fast responses such as adjustments in photosynthesis, (2) intermediate responses such as pigment adaptation and (3) slow responses such as changes in community biomass and species composition. Therefore, we exposed communities consisting of five phytoplankton species belonging to different taxonomic groups to two constant and two variable light intensity treatments combined with two levels of phosphorus supply. The tested phytoplankton communities exhibited increased fast reactions of photosynthetic processes to light variability and light intensity. The adjustment of their light harvesting mechanisms via community pigment composition was not affected by light intensity, variability, or nutrient supply. However, pigment specific effects of light intensity, light variability, and nutrient supply on the proportion of the respective pigments were detected. Biomass was positively affected by higher light intensity and nutrient concentrations while the direction of the effect of variability was modulated by light intensity. Light variability had a negative impact on biomass at low, but a positive impact at high light intensity. The effects on community composition were species specific. Generally, the proportion of green algae was higher under high light intensity, whereas the cyanobacterium performed better under low light conditions. In addition to that, the diatom and the cryptophyte performed better with high nutrient supply while the green algae as well as the cyanobacterium performed better at low nutrient conditions. This shows that light intensity, light variability, and nutrient supply interactively affect communities. Furthermore, the responses are highly species and pigment specific, thus to clarify the effects of climate change a deeper understanding of the effects of light variability and species interactions within communities is important.
Global climate change is omnipresent all over the world and is affecting and challenging organisms in various ways. Species either have to adapt to the changing environmental conditions or move to new habitats in order to avoid extinction.
Possible ways for an organism to react can be dispersal, phenotypic plasticity, genetic adaptation or a combination of these factors. Among the various consequences of climate change, especially changes in temperature affect plenty of species. In ectotherms, the body temperature and associated mechanisms are strongly dependent on environmental conditions.
The aim of this work was to investigate the mechanisms underlying adaptation to thermal variation and heat stress in the widespread butterfly species <i>Pieris napi<i>.
Focusing on indicators of individual condition, including morphology, physiology and life history traits, the purpose was to specify whether the species’ responses to temperature variation have a plastic or genetic basis. In the first experiment, phenotypic variation along a latitudinal and altitudinal cline was investigated. Yellow reflectance of wings was negatively correlated with wing melanisation, providing evidence for a trade-off between a sexually selected trait (yellow color) and thermoregulation (black color). Body size decreased with increasing latitude and led to the assumption that warmer conditions are more beneficial for <i>P. napi<i> than cooler ones. An increased flight performance at higher altitudes but not latitudes may
indicate stronger challenges for flight activity in high-altitude environments.
The second experiment focused on clinal variation and plasticity in morphology, physiology and life history in F1-generation individuals reared in captivity at different temperatures. It could be shown that individuals from cooler environments were less heat-tolerant, had a longer development but were nevertheless smaller, and had more melanised wings. These differences were genetically-based. Furthermore, it could be shown that a higher developmental temperature speeded up development, reduced body size, potential metabolic activity, and wing melanisation but increased heat tolerance, documenting plastic responses.
In a third experiment, we examined physiological responses to heat stress. A transcriptome analysis revealed an upregulation in molecular chaperones under hot conditions, whereas antioxidant responses and oxidative damage remained unaffected. The antioxidant glutathione (GSH) though was reduced under both cold and hot conditions. Interestingly, Swedish individuals were characterized by higher levels of GSH, lower early fecundity, and lower larval growth rates compared with German or Italian populations, suggesting a ‘pace-of-life’ syndrome. Thus, the individuals from warmer regions show the opposite pattern with a lower investment into maintenance but a faster lifestyle.
In summary, we found clinal variation in body size, growth rates and concomitant development time, wing aspect ratio, wing melanisation and heat tolerance. The effects of high developmental temperature very likely reflect adaptive phenotypic plasticity. When speeding up development; heat tolerance is increasing while body size, potential metabolic activity and wing melanisation are decreasing. Overall, body size of <i>P. napi<i> individuals decreased from south to north while the melanisation of the wings increased. Furthermore, we found a connection between increased wing melanisation and decreased yellow reflectance, most likely caused by a trade-off between the two. We could confirm that <i>P. napi<i> individuals from warmer environments were more heat-tolerant and larger than individuals from colder environments. Due to increasing temperatures and heat waves becoming more frequent in the future, being able to cope with such conditions will be advantageous. As warmer conditions had positive effects on individual development, <i>P. napi<i> may benefit from global warming, but its association with moist habitats suggests negative consequences of climate change. We could also reveal pronounced plastic and genetic responses in <i>P. napi<i>, which may indicate high adaptive capacities. Thus, increasing temperature may not be too problematic for the species, as it seems to be rather well equipped to deal with such challenges. However, as climate change entails changes in precipitation / humidity along with temperature changes, such issues need further investigation.
Photosynthetic activity in both algae and cyanobacteria changes in response to cues of predation
(2022)
A plethora of adaptive responses to predation has been described in microscopic aquatic producers. Although the energetic costs of these responses are expected, with their consequences going far beyond an individual, their underlying molecular and metabolic mechanisms are not fully known. One, so far hardly considered, is if and how the photosynthetic efficiency of phytoplankton might change in response to the predation cues. Our main aim was to identify such responses in phytoplankton and to detect if they are taxon-specific. We exposed seven algae and seven cyanobacteria species to the chemical cues of an efficient consumer, Daphnia magna, which was fed either a green alga, Acutodesmus obliquus, or a cyanobacterium, Synechococcus elongatus (kairomone and alarm cues), or was not fed (kairomone alone). In most algal and cyanobacterial species studied, the quantum yield of photosystem II increased in response to predator fed cyanobacterium, whereas in most of these species the yield did not change in response to predator fed alga. Also, cyanobacteria tended not to respond to a non-feeding predator. The modal qualitative responses of the electron transport rate were similar to those of the quantum yield. To our best knowledge, the results presented here are the broadest scan of photosystem II responses in the predation context so far.
Organisms often employ ecophysiological strategies to exploit environmental conditions and ensure bio-energetic success. However, the many complexities involved in the differential expression and flexibility of these strategies are rarely fully understood. Therefore, for the first time, using a three-part cross-disciplinary laboratory experimental analysis, we investigated the diversity and plasticity of photoresponsive traits employed by one family of environmentally contrasting, ecologically important phytoflagellates. The results demonstrated an extensive inter-species phenotypic diversity of behavioural, physiological, and compositional photoresponse across the Chlamydomonadaceae, and a multifaceted intra-species phenotypic plasticity, involving a broad range of beneficial photoacclimation strategies, often attributable to environmental predisposition and phylogenetic differentiation. Deceptively diverse and sophisticated strong (population and individual cell) behavioural photoresponses were observed, with divergence from a general preference for low light (and flexibility) dictated by intra-familial differences in typical habitat (salinity and trophy) and phylogeny. Notably, contrasting lower, narrow, and flexible compared with higher, broad, and stable preferences were observed in freshwater vs. brackish and marine species. Complex diversity and plasticity in physiological and compositional photoresponses were also discovered. Metabolic characteristics (such as growth rates, respiratory costs and photosynthetic capacity, efficiency, compensation and saturation points) varied elaborately with species, typical habitat (often varying more in eutrophic species, such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii), and culture irradiance (adjusting to optimise energy acquisition and suggesting some propensity for low light). Considerable variations in intracellular pigment and biochemical composition were also recorded. Photosynthetic and accessory pigments (such as chlorophyll a, xanthophyll-cycle components, chlorophyll a:b and chlorophyll a:carotenoid ratios, fatty acid content and saturation ratios) varied with phylogeny and typical habitat (to attune photosystem ratios in different trophic conditions and to optimise shade adaptation, photoprotection, and thylakoid architecture, particularly in freshwater environments), and changed with irradiance (as reaction and harvesting centres adjusted to modulate absorption and quantum yield). The complex, concomitant nature of the results also advocated an integrative approach in future investigations. Overall, these nuanced, diverse, and flexible photoresponsive traits will greatly contribute to the functional ecology of these organisms, addressing environmental heterogeneity and potentially shaping individual fitness, spatial and temporal distribution, prevalence, and ecosystem dynamics.
Unstable environments and habitats changing due to climate change force individuals to either respond by genetic adaptation, phenotypic plasticity or by dispersal to suitable environments. Theodoxus fluviatilis (Linneaus, 1758) is a good study organisms when researching phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation as it naturally appears in freshwater (FW) as well as brackish water (BW) and thus inhabits a wide range of environmental salinities (0-18‰). It is a euryhaline snail that can be found in shallow waters with stony ground or on Fucus spp. and has formed regional subgroups. The brackish water and the freshwater subgroups are spatially separated and the species cannot be found in areas inbetween, e.g. estuaries.
The species shows great variability in shell patterning and shell size and there is still debate whether the subgroups are distinguishable by these traits or not. The mitochdrial RNA marker cytochrome c subunit I did not show differences between the subgroups indicating that they must be closely related, but salinity tolerance has been observed to be higher in BW snails. This might be caused by the different protein expression patterns and osmolyte accumulation (measured as ninhydrin-positive substances) observed in this species in previous studies. The exact mechanisms regulating protein expression and osmolyte accumulation, however, are not fully understood yet.
Data collected for this thesis shows differences in shell size and suggests a less strict grouping of FW and BW individuals as shell sizes of one FW site are more similar to BW individuals than the other FW ones. A better salinity tolerance towards high salinities and a higher physiological salinity limit of BW snails was confirmed and extended by demonstrating an expanded tolerance range through slow acclimation to challenging salinities in snails from both subgroups. This was achieved by a shift in the slope of their reaction norms that was much more pronounced in BW snails than FW ones. S3 individuals showed a shift similar to that of BW individuals. The data for the salinity tolerance indicates that the underlying mechanism for these tolerances are a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation. Despite an acclimation and shift in the slope of the reaction norms and therefore an increased tolerance towards high salinities (plasticity) FW individuals from two collection sites were not able to cope with salinities as high as BW individuals (local adaptation). The general ability to mobilise free amino acids (FAA) as organic osmolytes was not the reason for this tolerance difference. Individuals from BW and FW sites were capable of accumulating quantities of FAAs equally well. Proline, alanine and urea were the most important components of the accumulated cocktail of organic osmolytes. Even though the total amount of FAAs accumulated under hyperosmotic conditions was the same in both subgroups, there were differences in the metabolic pathways involved in osmolyte accumulation in the foot muscle. The data indicates that the hydrolysis of storage proteins and the synthesis of proline and alanine are the main processes to avoid detrimental body volume shrinkage in T. fluviatilis. While FW individuals seemed to rely on the degradation of proteins and synthesis of alanine, BW individuals depended on newly synthesising proline and alanine and accumulating urea as a side product of transamination. The accumulation of urea is a new finding in aquatic living snails and has not been reported as a mechanism to avoid cell volume shrinkage in these animals.
Differing protein expression patterns were observed under control conditions across all collection sites. 9 spots showed volume changes in BW snails opposite to those of FW snails from collection sites S1 and S2. For 6 of those spots, S3 individuals showed patterns similar to those of BW individuals and for the remaining 3 they showed patterns similar to those of FW animals. The patterns observed when exposing snails to hypo- or hyperosmotic stress were not conclusive in relation to pinpointing individual spots that show the same pattern in all collection sites, but revealed the heterogeneity of protein expression in snails from the different collection sites and in the process of osmoregulation. It also showed the general tendency of protein reduction when snails where under osmotic stress of either kind (hypo- or hyperosmotic), which supports the hypothesis of storage protein degradation.
The investigation of an ANP-receptor showed two variations of the encoding sequence expressed in T. fluviatilis. S3 individuals as well as BW individuals were found to express one type, while FW individuals, with the exception of one sample expressed the other type. This showed that the FW subgroup of T. fluviatilis seems to be more heterogeneous than the BW subgroup, but also raises the question of the dispersal history of this species. The collected data indicates that T. fluviatilis individuals are firstly capable of surviving the acidity of a duck's gizzard and secondly can tolerate acute salinity changes to 16‰ when introduced into a new environment. Hence, if snails from the FW were to be transported to waters with a salinity of up to 16‰ by man, bird, drifting plants or some other means of transport, they would most likely survive and possibly be able to thrive and spread.