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Osmotic changes are common challenges for marine microorganisms. Bacteria have developed numerous ways of dealing with this stress, including reprogramming of global cellular processes. However, specific molecular adaptation mechanisms to osmotic stress have mainly been investigated in terrestrial model bacteria. In this work, we aimed to elucidate the basis of adjustment to prolonged salinity challenges at the proteome level in marine bacteria. The objects of our studies were three representatives of bacteria inhabiting various marine environments, Shewanella baltica, Vibrio harveyi and Aliivibrio fischeri. The proteomic studies were performed with bacteria cultivated in increased and decreased salinity, followed by proteolytic digestion of samples which were then subjected to liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis. We show that bacteria adjust at all levels of their biological processes, from DNA topology through gene expression regulation and proteasome assembly, to transport and cellular metabolism. The finding that many similar adaptation strategies were observed for both low- and high-salinity conditions is particularly striking. The results show that adaptation to salinity challenge involves the accumulation of DNA-binding proteins and increased polyamine uptake. We hypothesize that their function is to coat and protect the nucleoid to counteract adverse changes in DNA topology due to ionic shifts.
The soil living, Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis is frequently exposed to a wide variety of stress and starvation conditions in its natural environment. In order to survive under these environmental and energy stresses, the bacterium acquired a general stress response mechanism mediated by the alternative sigma factor, SigB. A wide-variety of stress conditions such as environmental stress conditions like ethanol stress, heat stress, oxidative stress, osmotic stress or limitation of glucose, oxygen, phosphate etc.; and low temperature growth induce this SigB-dependent general stress response. Though much is known about the mechanisms of activation of this general stress response, the conditions that induce the SigB regulon and its general functions, the definition of the structure of the SigB regulon is not completely clear. The SigB-dependent general stress regulon has previously been characterized by proteomic approaches as well as DNA-array based expression studies. Genome-wide expression studies performed by Price, Petersohn and Helmann defined the SigB regulon containing well above 100 target genes, however the overlapping list of target genes contains only 67 members. The differences between these studies probably result from the different strains, growth conditions, array platforms and experimental setups used in these studies. The first part of this work presents a targeted microarray analysis, which was performed to gain a better understanding of the structure of the general stress regulon. This is the first study analyzing the gene expression of a wild type strain and its isogenic sigB mutant strain for almost all known SigB inducing conditions, using the same array platform. Furthermore, the kinetics of the gene expression of 252 putative SigB-dependent genes and 36 appropriate control genes were recorded. The data were analyzed using Random Forest, a machine-learning algorithm, by incorporating the knowledge of previous studies. Two Random Forest models were designed in this study. The “expression RF” model was designed to identify genes showing expression differences between wild type and sigB mutant and the “kinetic RF” model to identify genes having a SigB-dependent expression kinetic, but is subject to secondary regulators next to SigB influencing their expression in the sigB mutant. The random forest classification using the “expression RF” model identified 166 genes as SigB regulon members based on the expression differences between the wild type and the sigB mutant strain. A variable importance plot showing the impact during the classification process within the “expression RF” could assign a hierarchy to the stress conditions investigated in this study. This hierarchy suggested all the RsbU-dependent environmental stresses to have higher impact on SigB-dependent gene expression compared to the RsbP-dependent energy stresses. The “kinetic RF” model identified 30 additional genes, having additional regulators next to SigB. The SigB dependency of the 30 genes identified by the “kinetic RF” model was validated by screening for SigB promoter motifs within the upstream region of these genes. The hierarchical clustering of the obtained motifs scores with the expression ratios of the SigB regulon members predicted in the current work revealed that only a subset of genes displayed correlation of gene expression values and sequence motifs. As this observation is not true for all sets of genes, it cannot be generalized that gene expression is only correlated with the corresponding motif scores. In total 196 SigB regulon members could be classified by this targeted oligo nucleotide microarray study. The majority of these regulon members were preceded by a putative SigB promoter motif either identified previously or predicted in the current work. The inclusion of the broad range of stress conditions, from environmental stresses to energy limiting conditions enabled a more detailed characterization of the structure of the general stress regulon of B. subtilis. The implementation of machine learning algorithms allowed the prediction with a minimum number of false-positives. In the second part of this work a high resolution tiling array analysis for the majority of growth conditions, stresses and changes in carbon sources supply was exploited for the screening for new SigB targets within already annotated or newly annotated RNA features. Thereby 133 previously un-annotated RNA features, which were completely new, were assigned to the SigB regulon. 50 of these 133 new features encode antisense RNAs which can have potential influence on the transcription / translation of their sense RNAs targets. A set of 282 annotated genes were indentified to be SigB regulon members, comparison with the targeted oligo nucleotide study, 90 genes were newly identified and not known to be SigB-dependent before. The analysis of the expression levels of these genes by k-means clustering revealed a cluster of 32 genes having low induction levels in all SigB-inducing conditions, although the majority of these genes possess a well-conserved SigB promoter motif. However, all these genes are probably subject to the control of regulators other than SigB, which might mask the typical strong SigB-dependent induction in the analyzed stress conditions. The analysis of the expression levels of the SigB regulon under a variety of conditions, revealed the SigB-dependent expression in conditions such as growth on plates, in swarming cells, biofilm formation and growth on glycerol as a carbon source. The possible reason for the induction of the SigB regulon during growth on plates and in swarming cells was supposed to be due to scarcity of the nutrients on plates, e.g. glucose limitation. SigB-dependent genes were likely induced during growth on glycerol due to the oxygen limitation that arose during the growth. However, induction of the SigB regulon during biofilm formation is assumed to be due to the phosphate limitation. The description of these new SigB activating stimuli gains support from the fact that the majority of the SigB-dependent genes were induced under these growth conditions. In addition to the general stress response, B. subtilis cells have stress specific adaptive mechanisms such as osmotic response, which was addressed in the third part of this dissertation. The frequent flooding and drying of the soil triggered osmotic stress, one of the most common stress conditions encountered by soil bacteria. Bacterial cells are equipped with osmo-specific adaptation responses in which specific regulation of a set of genes is used to maintain proper cellular function. It was known from previous studies that a large set of genes were influenced in expression by salt shock as well as growth at high osmolarity. Detailed analysis of the tiling array data revealed 467 differentially regulated newly annotated features during salt shock and 251 newly annotated features that were expressed at a different level during continuous growth at high versus low osmolarity. A comparison of the studies that used the sigB knockout mutant with the tiling array study also provided support for the sigma factor competition in control of the expression of osmo-adaptive genes. The level of induction of specific osmo-adaptive genes was much higher in the sigB mutant strain compared to the wild type strain. Furthermore, the tiling array data revealed a SigB-dependent antisense RNA S1290 upstream of the opuB operon that transports choline to the cell. The presence of this antisense RNA had a potential impact on the transcription of the opuB operon, during salt shock. In agreement with the previous studies, the tiling array data assigned the osmotically regulated proHJ operon to the SigE regulon, with a SigE promoter upstream. In addition, the significantly higher percentage of proline among spore coat proteins also supports the assumption that osmotic synthesis of proline might play a role during the generation of spores. In conclusion, the tiling array data revealed newly annotated RNA features that are regulated during the general stress response as well as the osmotic response of the cell. The current work identifies new conditions that induce the majority of SigB-dependent genes as well as the new features that regulate the osmotically induced genes.
Eukaryotische Zellen epithelialer Herkunft besitzen die Fähigkeit, nach einem von außen einwirkenden mitogenen Stimulus die Ruhephase des Zellzyklus zu verlassen und in einen Teilungsprozess einzutreten. Dieser streng regulierte Prozess wird unter anderem von einem als p27Kip1 bezeichneten Protein kontrolliert. Ein Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 ist Voraussetzung für das Verlassen der Ruhephase und das Eintreten der Zellen in die Phase der DNA – Synthese. Die Ubiquitinylierung von p27Kip1 mit einer nachfolgenden Degradation durch das Proteasom gilt als wesentlicher, wenn nicht sogar als Hauptmechanismus dieses Prozesses. Die Mechanismen, die zu einer Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in Zellen nach einem mitogenen Stimulus führen, wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit an zwei Modellen untersucht: den Zellen der Nasendrüse von Enten (Anas platyrhynchos) nach einer erstmaligen osmotischen Belastung des Tieres sowie den Zellen des regenerierenden Leberparenchyms von Ratten (Rattus norwegicus) nach einer partiellen Hepatektomie. Aus vorherigen Arbeiten war bekannt, dass in beiden Modellsystemen eine Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 auftritt. In Zellen der Nasendrüse ist nach Einwirkung eines mitogenen Stimulus eine leichte Alkalinisierung des Zytosol zu beobachten. In umfangreichen Versuchsreihen konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass diese Verschiebung des pH – Wertes zu einer erhöhten Aktivität der ubiquitinylierenden Enzyme in Zellen der Nasendrüse führt, was zu einem verstärkten Abbau von p27Kip1 beiträgt. Dieser Effekt konnte in Zellen des Leberparenchyms von Ratten tendenziell auch beobachtet, jedoch nicht statistisch abgesichert werden. Bedeutsam in diesem Zusammenhang ist es, dass ein pH – modulatorischer Effekt verschiedener als Mitogene bekannter Pharmaka auf Leberzellen nicht beziehungsweise nicht sicher gezeigt werden konnte. Dies deutete bereits an, dass die Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in beiden Modellsystemen nach zum Teil differierenden Mechanismen erfolgt. Bestätigt wurde dies durch den Nachweis einer Verminderung der mRNA von p27Kip1 in Zellen der regenerierenden Leber, was für eine transkriptionale Regulation spricht. Ein solcher Effekt konnte in vorhergehenden Arbeiten in den Zellen der Nasendrüse nicht gezeigt werden. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gesammelten Daten sprechen also dafür, dass die Verminderung der Menge an p27Kip1 in den Zellen der Nasendrüse vorwiegend über eine Ubiquitin – vermittelte Degradation durch das Proteasom erfolgt, während in den Zellen der Leber transkriptionale Prozesse die Hauptrolle spielen, eine Verstärkung des Effektes durch eine beschleunigte Degradation jedoch möglich ist. Ein weiterer Teil der Arbeit befasste sich mit der Untersuchung struktureller Prozesse im Lebergewebe nach einer partiellen Hepatektomie. Dabei konnte eine Korrelation von gewebs- und zellmorphologischen Veränderungen mit der zeitlichen Dynamik der Verminderung an p27Kip1 sowie der Expression eines als Proliferationsmarker bekannten Proteins, Ki-67, gezeigt werden. Dies ermöglichte die Entwicklung eines zeitlich gut aufgelösten Modells der der Regeneration von Lebergewebe nach partieller Hepatektomie zugrunde liegenden dynamischen Prozesse.