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Cascade reactions are not only of interest to chemists and biotechnologists, but also to life in general, because every metabolic reaction resembles a cascade reaction. This principle of substrate/intermediate channeling was only adapted by scientists. That way especially one-pot reactions became very attractive as for this no isolation of intermediates is necessary. Furthermore, unstable or toxic intermediates are only produced in low amounts and directly transformed in situ. In this PhD thesis two previously established cascade reactions were subject of further optimization. In the first part, a cascade reaction established in a DFG-funded project (Bo1862/6-1)in cooperation with the Vienna Technical University (Austria) for the production of chiral lactones was further optimized and extended. Therefore, on the one hand the genes encoding the needed enzymes were cloned for co-expression into a single plasmid in different arrangements to be expressed in pseudo-operon mode, with the aim to lower the metabolic burden of the cascade host cell. One out of the welve created constructs showed a reasonable activity of 15.3 ± 1.2 U · gCDW-1. On the other hand, this cascade reaction was aimed to be extended by the use of a hydroxylating enzyme to enable the use of limonene as renewable and chiral precursor for the proposed production of chiral polymers. Therefore, the feasibility of cytochrome P450-monooxygenases was studied. These turned out to be not applicable due to their bad regioselectivity for the hydroxylation of limonene or due to the difficulties of activity reconstitution. As alternative system for an initial hydroxylation step the use of a Rhodococcus equi strain, which was isolated from Cellulosimicrobium cellulans EB-8-4 and which is capable of very regioselective limonene-hydroxylation, was investigated. Therefore, the dioxygenase cluster responsible for the desired reaction was identified and especially the recombinant expression in a suitable host (Pseudomonas putida S12) was further studied. The results from these experiments revealed that the recombinant expression needs to be further optimized to enable the use of the recombinant dioxygenase in combination with the other enzymes for cascade reactions. The third part of this PhD thesis dealt with the immobilization of an established cascade reaction for the synthesis of poly-[caprolactone] precursors. Therefore, the use of a rotating bed reactor (RBR) was investigated. Preliminary studies using single enzymes involved in the desired cascade reaction demonstrated the general feasibility of this reactor concept. Especially the reusability of the catalysts was highly improved, because the catalytic particles were protected very effectively from mechanical forces within the voids of the reactor. For further work-flow optimization the immobilization was transformed into an in situ process by the application of a gas-shear device, which leads to decreased capsule size and thereby to increased mass transfer inside the particles. The developed methods were applied for encapsulation of the cells containing the enzymes needed for the reaction. After additional improvement of the reaction parameters a conversion of 93% (based on substrate depletion) was reached using catalysts produced by the established encapsulation procedure. In summary, the described cascade reactions were successfully optimized by either co-expression, extension applying a dioxygenase or immobilization. Furthermore, the general feasibility of an RBR was demonstrated.
Oils and fats from natural origin are sustainable sources for a broad range of economically relevant products in food, feed, fuel, oleochemical, and cosmetic industries. Thereby, a huge variety of lipids or lipid-derived products exist which distinguish themselves by their unique physical properties making them suitable for their individual applications. To obtain such functional lipids in an environmentally friendly manner, enzymes can be employed. In that context, lipases have been proven to be valuable biocatalysts in lipid modification, which are broadly applied in industry. Even though they have been implemented successfully in the dairy, baking, and detergent industries, there is an increasing demand for the expansion of their utilization. New technologies like protein engineering and the implementation of process development are employed in solving this task. Within the enzymes in lipid modification, lipases are the most applied catalysts and in this thesis their utilization was expanded successfully to the implementation of novel separation processes and the production of improved drug delivery matrices.
Long-chain aliphatic amines such as (S,Z)-hepta- dec-9-en-7-amine and 9-aminoheptadecane were synthesized from ricinoleic acid and oleic acid, respectively, by whole-cell cascade reactions using the combination of an alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) from Micrococcus luteus, an engi- neered amine transaminase from Vibrio fluvialis (Vf-ATA), and a photoactivated decarboxylase from Chlorella variabilis NC64A (Cv-FAP) in a one-pot process. In addition, long chain aliphatic esters such as 10-(heptanoyloxy)dec-8-ene and octyl- nonanoate were prepared from ricinoleic acid and oleic acid, respectively, by using the combination of the ADH, a Baeyer– Villiger monooxygenase variant from Pseudomonas putida KT2440, and the Cv-FAP. The target compounds were produced at rates of up to 37 U g1 dry cells with conversions up to 90 %. Therefore, this study contributes to the preparation of industrially relevant long-chain aliphatic chiral amines and esters from renewable fatty acid resources.
This thesis deals with the process considerations and optimizations of a whole-cell enzyme cascade reaction for the synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone. The enzyme cascade synthesis of ɛ-caprolactone has been conceptualized and verified using a dehydrogenase and a monooxygenase. The advantage of this enzyme combination is the closed-loop co-factor regeneration. Dehydrogenase and monooxygenase expressed in discrete whole cells were applied in defined ratio to conceptualize the cascade reaction. This necessitates the use of separate co-factor regeneration system due to impermeability of the E. coli cell wall to the co-factor. Article I deal with the design and optimization of dehydrogenase and monooxygenase co-expression in a same E. coli cell. In Article II, the cascade reaction was upscaled and a fed-batch process was realized. Following which, the important reaction metrices were analyzed and optimized. Article III extends the two-enzyme cascade with a lipase. The use of lipase helps to overcome the product inhibition of monooxygenase by ɛ-caprolactone.
In 2010, the identification of 17 novel (R)-ATAs represented a breakthrough for the biocatalytic asymmetric synthesis of chiral amines, because only one (R)-ATA was described before. These novel ATAs were identified in a bioinformatic approach by studying the substrate acceptance of BCATs and DATAs to deduce the unknown substrate coordination of (R)-ATAs. Article I describes an alternative approach for the identification of (R)-ATA activity by reengineering the substrate- recognition site of α-AATs. While the engineering of the eBCAT led to the formation of an initial (R)-amine acceptance only, the (R)-ATA activity was successfully introduced in the DATA scaffold. These results demonstrate the transformation of an α-AAT in a moderately active (R)-ATA for the first time and highlight the evolutionary relationship between α-AATs and ATAs. Despite the availability of different ATAs nowadays, their substrate spectrum is limited due to the natural composition of their active sites. Several protein-engineering studies showed the widening of the substrate spectrum and the acceptance of bulky substrates by screening large mutant libraries to identify beneficial variants. In Article II, we developed an in silico engineering approach for amine transaminases to improve the conversion of bulky substrates and to reduce the number of variants to be tested in the laboratory. The resulting double-mutants of the (S)-ATA from C. violaceum displayed a >200-fold improved activity towards the bulky benchmark substrate. These variants expand the available biocatalytic toolbox for the synthesis of bulky amines, and the developed framework paves the way for rational protein-engineering protocols.
By studying unconventional transaminase substrates, we explored the potential of the available in- house transaminase toolbox in Articles III, IV, V, and VI. In Article III, we showed the transamination of a β-keto ester, leading to the synthesis of β-phenylalanine. The described cascade in Article IV enables the synthesis of amino carbohydrates. In addition, Article V describes an enzymatic cascade for the synthesis of amino fatty acids, which was extended in Article VI to obtain fatty amines.
The findings of this thesis clearly contribute to the understanding of the substrate scope and specificity of amine transaminases and expand the application of this versatile biocatalyst beyond classical ketone substrates.
The synthesis of several bioactive compounds and active pharmaceutical ingredients relies on the development of general and efficient methods to prepare optically pure amines. Transaminases are industrially relevant enzymes and are useful for synthesizing a large number of compounds that contain a chiral amine functionality. Although the immense potential associated to the use of these biocatalysts, the equilibrium position is often unfavorable for amine synthesis. The use of an excess of amine donor, compared to the ketone substrate, combined with selective removal of the formed product, can help in overcoming this limitation. This work mainly focused on broadening the application of membrane-based in situ product recovery (ISPR) techniques for the transaminase-catalyzed synthesis of chiral amines. The
overall work was designed around the implementation of amine donors, possessing considerably larger molecular ‘size’ compared to commonly used amine donors. To clearly
distinguish these molecules from traditional donor amines, we designate them as High Molecular Weigh amine donors. With a molecular weight between 400 and 1500 g/mol, in contrast to traditional donor amines, HMW amine donors enable a size-based separation between amine donor and amine product molecules. HMW amines, provided in excess for thermodynamic equilibrium shifting can thus be simply retained by a size-exclusion mechanism by commercial membranes, while the smaller product amines are permeated. Therefore, a selective recovery of the desired chiral amine product is possible. The implementation of ISPR techniques using HMW amine donors can theoretically lead to (i) equilibrium shifting, (ii) alleviation of product inhibition, and (iii) a highly pure product stream.
The feasibility of using HMW amine donors in aqueous, organic solvent and solvent-free media for the transaminase-catalyzed synthesis of 1-methyl-3-phenylpropylamine (MPPA) was proven in this thesis. The latter two approaches were investigated with the aim to achieve higher product concentrations. Along with that, we demonstrated two membrane-assisted ISPR proof of concepts. Specifically, nanofiltration was coupled with the enzymatic reaction performed in aqueous media (Article I), while liquid-liquid (L-L) extraction in a contactor was applied for transamination in organic solvent media (Article II). As an alternative to membrane-based strategies we also designed a spinning reactor concept for the integrated chiral amine synthesis (in organic solvent) and recovery (Article III).
S-adenosyl-L-methionine- (SAM) dependent methyltransferases (MTs) catalyse methylation of halide ions and the C, O, N, S, Se, and As atoms of biomolecules ranging from biopolymers to small molecules. They display different chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity according to their specific functions. This thesis focuses on the engineering of O-methyltransferases (OMTs) and halide methyltransferases (HMTs) through rational design and directed evolution to study their structure-function relationship and to explore their catalytic promiscuity. The influence of substrate binding residues on the substrate scope and regioselectivity of a plant OMT against various phenolic substrates (Article I) and flavonoids (Article II) has been investigated. Article III describes the directed evolution of an HMT for the biocatalytic synthesis of diverse SAM analogues. With the evolved HMT, regioselective alkylation of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, as well as the SAM analogue regeneration, were achieved through an HMT-MT cascade reaction.
Article I Specific residues expand the substrate scope and enhance the regioselectivity of a plant O-methyltransferase.
It was reported in literature that an isoeugenol 4-OMT (IeOMT) can be engineered to a caffeic acid 3-OMT (CaOMT) by replacing three consecutive residues. In this article, we investigated the effect of these residues on substrate preference and regioselectivity of IeOMT. The triple mutant T133M/A134N/T135Q and the respective single mutants were constructed and tested against a series of phenolic compounds. The variant T133M had a universal effect to improve enzymatic activities against all tested substrates while the mutant A134N had enhanced regioselectivity. The triple mutant T133M/A134N/T135Q benefits from these two mutations, which not only expanded the substrate scope, but also enhanced the regioselectivity of IeOMT. On the basis of this work, regiospecific methylated phenolics can be produced in high purity by different IeOMT variants.
Article II Influence of substrate binding residues on the substrate scope and regioselectivity of a plant O-methyltransferase against flavonoids
Flavonoid OMTs (FOMTs), isoflavonoid OMTs (IOMTs) and phenylpropanoid OMTs (POMTs) display different substrate preferences. Sequence comparison showed that the substrate binding residues at positions 322 and 326 are different between these OMT groups and might be critical for the substrate discrimination. Residues at positions 322 and 326 in IeOMT (a POMT) were mutated to the commonly presented residues in FOMT and IOMT. The introduced mutants, in cooperation with the variant T133M, have improved or brought novel activities and regioselectivity against the tested flavonoids eriodictyol, naringenin, luteolin, quercetin, and also the isoflavonoid genistein compared to the wild-type IeOMT. On the basis of this work, methylated flavonoids that are rare in nature were produced in high purity.
Article III Directed evolution of a halide methyltransferase enables biocatalytic synthesis of diverse SAM analogs
Biocatalytic alkylations to obtain chemo‐, regio‐ and stereoselectively alkylated compounds can be achieved by MTs with the supply of SAM analogues. It was recently discovered that SAM can be directly synthesized from S adenosyl-L homocysteine (SAH) and methyl iodide, catalysed by an HMT. To explore the promiscuity of HMT in the synthesis of SAM analogues, we performed directed evolution of the Arabidopsis thaliana HMT based on a sensitive, colorimetric iodide assay. The identified variant V140T displayed activities against ethyl‐, propyl‐, and allyl iodides to produce the corresponding SAM analogues. With this HMT variant, regioselective ethylation of luteolin and allylation of 3,4‐dihydroxybenzaldehyde, as well as the SAM analogue regeneration, were achieved through this HMT-MT one-pot cascade reaction.
Abstract
Amine transaminases (ATAs) are biocatalysts for the synthesis of chiral amines and can be identified in sequence databases by specific sequence motifs. This study shows that the activity level towards the model substrate 1‐phenylethylamine can be predicted solely from the sequence. To demonstrate this, 15 putative ATAs with a different distribution of hydrophobic or hydrophilic amino acid side chains near the active site were characterized. Hydrophobic side chains were associated with a high activity level and were a better predictor of activity than global sequence identity to known ATAs with high or low activities. Enzyme stability investigations revealed that four out of the 15 ATAs showed a good operational stability.
Abstract
Enzyme activity data for biocatalytic applications are currently often not annotated with standardized conditions and terms. This makes it extremely hard to retrieve, compare, and reuse enzymatic data. With advances in the fields of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), the automated usability of data in the form of machine‐readable annotations will play a crucial role for their success. It is becoming increasingly easy to retrieve complex data sets and extract relevant information; however, standardized data readability is a current limitation. In this contribution, we outline an iterative approach to develop standardized terms and create semantic relations (ontologies) to achieve this highly desirable goal of improving the discoverability, accessibility, interoperability, and reuse of digital resources in the field of biocatalysis.
Protein engineering is essential for altering the substrate scope, catalytic activity and selectivity of enzymes for applications in biocatalysis. However, traditional approaches, such as directed evolution and rational design, encounter the challenge in dealing with the experimental screening process of a large protein mutation space. Machine learning methods allow the approximation of protein fitness landscapes and the identification of catalytic patterns using limited experimental data, thus providing a new avenue to guide protein engineering campaigns. In this concept article, we review machine learning models that have been developed to assess enzyme-substrate-catalysis performance relationships aiming to improve enzymes through data-driven protein engineering. Furthermore, we prospect the future development of this field to provide additional strategies and tools for achieving desired activities and selectivities.
Amine transaminases (ATAs) are powerful biocatalysts for the stereoselective synthesis of chiral amines. Machine learning provides a promising approach for protein engineering, but activity prediction models for ATAs remain elusive due to the difficulty of obtaining high-quality training data. Thus, we first created variants of the ATA from Ruegeria sp. (3FCR) with improved catalytic activity (up to 2000-fold) as well as reversed stereoselectivity by a structure-dependent rational design and collected a high-quality dataset in this process. Subsequently, we designed a modified one-hot code to describe steric and electronic effects of substrates and residues within ATAs. Finally, we built a gradient boosting regression tree predictor for catalytic activity and stereoselectivity, and applied this for the data-driven design of optimized variants which then showed improved activity (up to 3-fold compared to the best variants previously identified). We also demonstrated that the model can predict the catalytic activity for ATA variants of another origin by retraining with a small set of additional data.