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Abstract
Alkali ion beams are among the most intense produced by the ISOLDE facility. These were the first to be studied by the ISOLTRAP mass spectrometer and ever since, new measurements have been regularly reported. Recently the masses of very neutron-rich and short-lived cesium isotopes were determined at ISOLTRAP. The isotope 148Cs was measured directly for the first time by Penning-trap mass spectrometry. Using the new results, the trend of two-neutron separation energies in the cesium isotopic chain is revealed to be smooth and gradually decreasing, similar to the ones of the barium and xenon isotopic chains. Predictions of selected microscopic models are employed for a discussion of the experimental data in the region.
Abstract
The presented work highlights the role of residual weakly-bound surface electrons acting as an effective seed electron reservoir that favors the pre-ionization of diffuse barrier discharges (BDs). A glow-like BD was operated in helium at a pressure of 500 mbar in between two plane electrodes each covered with float glass at a distance of
3 mm.The change in discharge development due to laser photodesorption of surface electrons was studied by electrical measurements and optical emission spectroscopy. Moreover, a 1D numerical fluid model of the diffuse discharge allowed the simulation of the laser photodesorption experiment, the estimation of the released surface electrons, and the understanding of their impact on the reaction kinetics in the volume. The breakdown voltage is clearly reduced when the laser beam at photon energy of 2.33 eV hits the cathodic dielectric that is charged with residual electrons during the discharge pre-phase. According to the adapted simulation, the laser releases only a small amount of surface electrons in the order of
10 pC. Nevertheless, this significantly supports the pre-ionization. Using a lower photon energy of 1.17 eV, the transition from the glow mode to the Townsend mode is induced due to a much higher electron yield up to 1 nC. In this case, both experiment and simulation indicate a retarded stepwise release of surface electrons initiated by the low laser photon energy.
Abstract
In this series of two papers we present results about the E-H transition of an inductively coupled oxygen discharge driven at radio frequency (13.56 MHz) for different total gas pressures. The mode transition from the low density E-mode to the high density H-mode is studied using comprehensive plasma diagnostics. The measured electron density can be used to distinguish between the different operation modes. This paper focuses on the determination of the negative atomic ion density and the electronegativity by two experimental methods and global rate equation calculation. As a result, the electronegativity significantly decreases over two orders of magnitude from about 25 in the E-mode to about 0.1 in the H-mode. The temporal behavior of the electronegativity in pulsed ICP shows that the negative atomic ion density reaches a steady state after 10 ms. Negative atomic ions are mainly produced by the dissociative attachment with the molecular ground state. The ion–ion recombination with the positive molecular ions and the collisional detachment with the singlet molecular metastables contribute significantly to the loss of the negative atomic ions.
Abstract
In this series of two papers, the E-H transition in a planar inductively coupled radio frequency discharge (13.56 MHz) in pure oxygen is studied using comprehensive plasma diagnostic methods. The electron density serves as the main plasma parameter to distinguish between the operation modes. The (effective) electron temperature, which is calculated from the electron energy distribution function and the difference between the floating and plasma potential, halves during the E-H transition. Furthermore, the pressure dependency of the RF sheath extension in the E-mode implies a collisional RF sheath for the considered total gas pressures. The gas temperature increases with the electron density during the E-H transition and doubles in the H-mode compared to the E-mode, whereas the molecular ground state density halves at the given total gas pressure. Moreover, the singlet molecular metastable density reaches 2% in the E-mode and 4% in the H-mode of the molecular ground state density. These measured plasma parameters can be used as input parameters for global rate equation calculations to analyze several elementary processes. Here, the ionization rate for the molecular oxygen ions is exemplarily determined and reveals, together with the optical excitation rate patterns, a change in electronegativity during the mode transition.
Abstract
The laser photodetachment experiment in a diffuse helium–oxygen barrier discharge is evaluated by a 1D fluid simulation. As in the experiment, the simulated discharge operates in helium with
400
ppm
oxygen admixture at
500
mbar
inside a discharge gap of
3
mm
. The laser photodetachment is included by the interaction of negative ions with a temporally and spatially dependent photon flux. The simulation with the usually applied set of reactions and rate coefficients provides a much lower negative ion density than needed to explain the impact on the discharge characteristics in the experiment. Further processes for an enhanced negative ion formation and their capabilities of reproducing the experimental results are discussed. These further processes are additional attachment processes in the volume and the negative ion formation at the negatively charged dielectric. Both approaches are able to reproduce the measured laser photodetachment effect partially, but the best agreement with the experimental results is achieved with the formation of negative ions at the negatively charged dielectric.
Abstract
Single self-stabilized discharge filaments were investigated in the plane-parallel electrode configuration. The barrier discharge was operated inside a gap of 3 mm shielded by glass plates to both electrodes, using helium-nitrogen mixtures and a square-wave feeding voltage at a frequency of 2 kHz. The combined application of electrical measurements, ICCD camera imaging, optical emission spectroscopy and surface charge diagnostics via the electro-optic Pockels effect allowed the correlation of the discharge development in the volume and on the dielectric surfaces. The formation criteria and existence regimes were found by systematic variation of the nitrogen admixture to helium, the total pressure and the feeding voltage amplitude. Single self-stabilized discharge filaments can be operated over a wide parameter range, foremost, by significant reduction of the voltage amplitude after the operation in the microdischarge regime. Here, the outstanding importance of the surface charge memory effect on the long-term stability was pointed out by the recalculated spatio-temporally resolved gap voltage. The optical emission revealed discharge characteristics that are partially reminiscent of both the glow-like barrier discharge and the microdischarge regime, such as a Townsend pre-phase, a fast cathode-directed ionization front during the breakdown and radially propagating surface discharges during the afterglow.
Surface charge measurements on different dielectrics in diffuse and filamentary barrier discharges
(2017)
Abstract
Previously, we reported on the measurement of surface charges during the operation of barrier discharges (BDs) using the electro-optic Pockels effect of a bismuth silicon oxide (BSO) crystal. With the present work, the next milestone is achieved by making this powerful method accessible to various dielectrics which are typically used in BD configurations. The dynamics and spatial distribution of positive and negative surface charges were determined on optically transparent borosilicate glass, mono-crystalline alumina and magnesia, respectively, covering the BSO crystal. By variation of the nitrogen admixture to helium and the pressure between 500 mbar and 1 bar, both the diffuse glow-like BD and the self-stabilized discharge filaments were operated inside of a gas gap of 3 mm. The characteristics of the discharge and, especially, the influence of the different dielectrics on its development were studied by surface charge diagnostics, electrical measurements and ICCD camera imaging. Regarding the glow-like BD, the breakdown voltage changes significantly by variation of the cathodic dielectric, due to the different effective secondary electron emission (SEE) coefficients. These material-specific SEE yields were estimated using Townsend’s criterion in combination with analytical calculations of the effective ionization coefficient in helium with air impurities. Moreover, the importance of the surface charge memory effect for the self-stabilization of discharge filaments was quantified by the recalculated spatio-temporal behavior of the gap voltage.
Synopsis
Polyanionic metal clusters are produced by electron attachment in both Paul and Penning traps. After size and charge-state selection, the cluster properties are further investigated by various methods including photo-dissociation. Depending on the particular cluster species various decay modes are observed.
Lead-cluster investigations
(2017)
In this thesis, investigations on lead clusters stored in a Penning trap are presented. The measurements are performed at the ClusterTrap setup at the Institute of Physics of the University of Greifswald. A Penning trap with a superconducting magnet (B=12 Tesla) makes up the central part of the experiment. In this trap, singly positively or negatively charged lead clusters (a group of lead atoms) are stored, their amplitudes of motion are cooled, and a specific cluster size is selected. Thus, clusters of only a single size are prepared for experimental investigation. After interactions with electrons and/or photons, the trap content is extracted and analyzed by time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
In the first experiment, the size-selected clusters are excited by a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser, which leads to fragmentation processes. The preferred fragmentation pathway, which is observed to be break-off of a seven-atom neutral cluster is unusual for metal clusters, which typically evaporate monomers. Furthermore, the already known magic cluster sizes are observed.
In a subsequent experiment, positively charged lead clusters with 31 atoms are irradiated with laser light and fragmentation processes are time resolved investigated. The assumption that lead clusters fragment by break-off of neutral heptamers is confirmed.
In the following experiment, an electron beam is guided through the Penning trap to ionize pulsed-in argon atoms. While the positive argon ions leave the trap, the secondary electrons are trapped together with the selected lead clusters. This allows the electrons to attach to the singly charged lead clusters, which leads to multiply negatively charged lead clusters. The relative abundance of multiply-charged clusters is measured with respect to the cluster size, from which the appearance sizes of di- and trianions can be calculated. In addition to the attachment of electrons, fragmentation products similar to those of the photoexcitation measurements are observed. Furthermore, the cluster sizes 10 and 12 are observed regardless of the investigated precursor size, together with clusters of the precursor size reduced by 10 and 12. This is a first hint for a fission process of doubly negatively charged lead clusters into two singly charged products. In a following measurement, doubly charged lead clusters are produced and photoexcited. The observed abundance spectra confirm this assumption.
This work examines the influence of monovalent and divalent cations on tetramyristoyl cardiolipin (TMCL) monolayers. A lipid monolayer can undergo an ordering transition of the lipid alkyl chains from a disordered fluid phase (liquid-expanded (LE)) to an ordered gel phase (liquid-condensed (LC)). Compression of the lipid monolayer in a Pockels-Langmuir trough was monitored with a Wilhelmy plate tensiometer, yielding the surface pressure π in dependence of the area a molecule can occupy on average A, as a π-A-isotherm. The onset of the first order LE/LC phase transition is marked by an abrupt change in the isotherm at surface pressure πc.
These associated lipid membrane changes were characterized by variation of the compression speed, kind and concentration of the monovalent and divalent salt, pH, and temperature. The CL monolayer phase transition was found to depend on the compression speed, yielding only a small variation in the compression isotherms.
For monovalent cations on the cardiolipin monolayer, the dependence on salt concentration of the lipid liquid gel phase transition surface pressure πc was determined and a non-monotonic behavior was found, with a maximum in πc for a salt concentration of 0.1 mol/l. The maximum in πc can be shifted with pH (e.g. pH = 4.2). This behavior extended to potassium, sodium and cesium cations in the subphase. No ion specific effects were observed, which pointed to the prevalence of electrostatic interactions in the system.
Different divalent salt subphases, of either magnesium, calcium, strontium, manganese, iron or zinc salts, with fixed sodium chloride concentration of 0.15 mol/l at pH of 5.8 and 25 °C were investigated. πc decreases upon addition of divalent salts to the subphase. This points to increased screening and binding effects. Strongest binding effects were observed for calcium and manganese cations.
The electrostatic interactions of the system were modeled with a mean-field theory: Grahame’s equation, and a simple law of mass action. CL is modeled at half its molecular area and half its charge, with a proton dissociation constant of the phosphate group Ka,intrinsic(PO4) = 0.1 mol/l. The agreement with the experiment was satisfactory.
A linear dependence of πc on the temperature was found for cardiolipin monolayers on all subphases. The isothermal area compressibility modulus KA is calculated from selected isotherms. It was found that the flexibility of the monolayer decreases with temperature and the area per molecule for the cardiolipin fluid phase.
The compression speed, monovalent salt concentration, pH, and selected divalent cations were investigated with the BAM. For all a sigmoidal growth of xgel with compression was observed. For high salt concentrations non-circular and dendritic domains were observed.
A simple model for the nucleation process was introduced, yielding an estimate of 20 nm for the critical domain radius, which is below the resolution of the BAM, but a common length scale in biological systems.
This thesis highlights the impact of surface charges and negative ions on the pre-ionization, breakdown mechanism, and lateral structure of dielectric barrier discharges operated in binary mixtures of helium with nitrogen or electronegative oxygen. Sophisticated diagnostic methods, e.g., non-invasive optical emission spectroscopy and the electro-optic Pockels effect as well as invasive laser photodetachment and laser photodesorption, were applied at one plane-parallel discharge configuration to investigate both relevant volume and surface processes. Moreover, the experimental findings were supported by numerical fluid simulations of the discharge. For the first time, the memory effect of the measured surface charge distribution was quantified and its impact on the local self-stabilization of discharge filaments was pointed out. As well, it turned out that a few additional seed electrons, either desorbed from the charged dielectric surface or detached from negative ions in the volume, significantly contribute to the pre-ionization resulting in a reduced voltage necessary for discharge breakdown. Finally, effective secondary electron emission coefficients of different dielectrics were estimated from the measured breakdown voltage using an analytical model.
The content of this thesis can be summarized as follows: (i) The deposition processes of SiOx and SiOxCyHz coatings were investigated in a low-pressure, low temperature HMDSO-O2-N2 plasmas. Infrared laser absorption spectroscopy (IRLAS) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES) were combined to measure the gas temperatures in the hot and colder zones of the plasma as well as to monitor the concentration of the methyl radical, CH3, and of seven stable molecules, HMDSO, CH4, C2H2, C2H4, C2H6, CO and CO2. Tunable lead salt diode lasers (TDLs) and an external-cavity quantum cascade laser (EC-QCL) were simultaneously employed as radiation sources to perform the IRLAS measurements. They were found to be in the range between 10^{11} to 10^{15} cm^{−3}. The influence of the discharge parameters of power, pressure and gas mixture on the molecular concentrations was studied. The plasma generation is characterized by a certain degree of inhomogeneity with different temperature zones, i.e., hottest, hot and colder zones depending on the construction of the reactor. This complexity is characterized by the multiple molecular species including the HMDSO precursor and products in ground and excited states existing in the plasma. (ii) Employing similarly IRLAS and OES techniques, the deposition of nanocrystalline diamond at relatively low temperature in low-pressure MW H2 plasmas with small ad-mixtures of methane and carbon dioxide was investigated. Five methods were applied for an extensive temperature analysis, providing new insights into energetic aspects of the multi-component non-equilibrium plasma. The OES method provided information about the gas temperature of H2 inside the MW plasma. Using lead salt diode lasers, the rotational temperature of the methyl radical, CH3 , and gas temperature of methane molecule, CH4 , was measured. A variety of CO lines in the ground and in three excited states have been analysed using an EC-QCL with a relatively wide spectral range. These methods have shown that based on the construction of the DAA reactor using 16 single plasma sources the plasma generation is characterized by a variety of hottest, hot and colder zones. Extensive measurement of these various species temperatures in the complex plasma enabled the concentration determination of the various stable and unstable plasma species, which were found to be in the range between 10 11 to 10 15 cm −3 . The influence of the discharge parameters, power and pressure, on the molecular concentrations has been studied. To achieve insight into general plasma chemical aspects, the dissociation of the carbon precursor gases including their fragmentation and conversion to the reaction products was analysed in detail. The evolution of the concentration of the methyl radical, CH 3 , of five stable molecules, CH4, CO2, CO, C2H2 and C2H4, and of vibrationally excited CO in the first and second hot band was monitored in the plasma processes by in situ infrared laser absorption spectroscopy using lead salt diode lasers (TDL) and an external-cavity quantum cascade laser (EC-QCL) as radiation sources. OES was applied simultaneously to obtain complementary information about the degree of dissociation of the H2 precursor gas. The analysis of the carbon and oxygen mass balances shows clearly, that the deposition on the reactor walls and the production of other hydrocarbons species may act as sinks for carbon and oxygen. (iii) The absolute line strengths of many P-branch transitions of the ν3 fundamental of {28}^SiH4 were determined using the wide tuning range and the narrow line width of a cw EC-QCL between 2096 and 2178 cm^{−1}. The line positions and line strengths of transitions of the stretching dyad within the P-branch of {28}^SiH4 were determined with an estimated experimental measurement accuracy of 10%. The high spectral resolution available has enabled us to resolve and measure representative examples of the tetrahedral splittings associated with each component of the P-branch. The positions of these components are in excellent agreement with spherical top data system (STDS) predictions and theoretical transitions from the TDS spectroscopic database for spherical top molecules. To our knowledge, this is the first reported measurement of these line strengths in this band and is an example of the applicability of high-powered, widely tunable EC-QCLs to high resolution spectroscopy in the MIR. (iv) Similarly, the determination of the silyl radicals, ν3 band, line strengths is ongoing using the same cw EC-QCL. This effort was impaired by silane and other unknown species lines overlap; however, the silyl radicals was successfully detected in a SiH4/H2 plasma. A method to determine the silyl line strengths has been presented through its iterative decay measurements which relied on the value of the silyl radical self reaction constant. There was a consensus of its value in the literature.
Polyelektrolyt-Multischichten (PEMs) werden durch sequentielle Adsorption von entgegengesetzt geladenen Polyelektrolyten (PE) auf festen Substraten adsorbiert. Die Layer-by-Layer Präparation ermöglicht es cm2 große Flächen zu beschichten und außerdem die Möglichkeit die Molekülanordnung senkrecht zur Substratoberfläche im nm-Bereich zu kontrollieren. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit ist die Untersuchung der Adsorption hinsichtlich des Molekulargewichts der beteiligten PEs von PEMs bestehend aus dem Polykation Polydiallyldimethylammonium (PDADMA) und dem Polyanion Polystyrolsulfonat (PSS). Zu diesem Zweck wird das Schichtwachstum unter in-situ Bedingungen mittels der Ellipsometrie untersucht. Das Schichtwachstum im Fall von PDADMA/PSS Multischichten verläuft nichtlinear mit der Anzahl an deponierten Schichtpaaren. Dabei wird das nichtlineare Wachstumsregime durch die unterschiedliche Linienladungsdichte zwischen einer PDADMA und PSS Kette in Verbindung gebracht. Die quantitative Analyse der Messungen zeigt, dass alle untersuchten PDADMA/PSS Multischichten präpariert aus 0,1 M NaCl bei Raumtemperatur mindestens zwei verschiedene Wachstumsregimes aufweisen. Zunächst wächst die Schicht parabolisch bis sie nach Nlin Schichtpaaren in ein lineares Wachstumsregime übergeht. Dieses wird durch einen konstanten Schichtdickenzuwachs pro adsorbiertes Schichtpaar Δdlin charakterisiert. Das Adsorptionsverhalten der PDADMA und PSS Ketten wird analysiert indem das Molekulargewicht Mw der Polyelektrolyte systematisch variiert wird (zwischen Mw(PDADMA)=24 kDa…322 kDa, sowie Mw(PSS)=8,6 kDa…168 kDa). Eine Analyse der Schichtparameter Nlin und Δdlin ergibt bei hohen Molekulargewichten von PDADMA und PSS, dass Nlin und Δdlin unabhängig von den jeweiligen Molekulargewichten sind (Nlin=15 und Δdlin=12,3 ± 1,3 nm). Reduziert man das Molekulargewicht von PDADMA auf einen Wert unterhalb eines Schwellwertes von Mw (PDADMA)=80 kDa, so nehmen Nlin und Δdlin linear ab. Unterschreitet das PSS-Molekulargewicht den Schwellwert Mw (PSS)=25 kDa, beobachtet man den gegenteiligen Effekt: beide Wachstumsparameter Nlin und Δdlin nehmen zu und ein zusätzliches exponentielles Wachstumsregime tritt auf. Damit wächst die Multischicht zunächst exponentiell, geht nach Nexp Schichtpaaren ins parabolische Wachstum bis dieses nach Nlin Schichtpaaren ins lineare Wachstumsregime übergeht. Neutronenreflexionsmessungen mit selektiv deuterierten PSS Schichten zeigen eine Diffusion der leichten PSS Ketten innerhalb der Multischicht. Ein solches Diffusionsverhalten ist typisch für exponentiell wachsende Schichten und wurde bereits theoretisch vorhergesagt. Um den molekularen Mechanismus der Adsorptionsprozesse besser zu verstehen, werden PEMs aus binären Mischungen präpariert. Diese setzen sich aus einem Molekulargewicht oberhalb und unterhalb des jeweiligen Schwellwertes (Mw(PDADMA)=80 kDa bzw. Mw(PSS)=25 kDa) zusammen. Dabei wird der Molenbruch des schweren Polyelektrolyts (ΦPDADMA(Mw(PDADMA)>80 kDa) bzw. ΦPSS(Mw(PSS)>25 kDa)) variiert. Im Falle der binären PDADMA Mischung beinhaltet die Adsorptionslösung Moleküle mit den Molekulargewichten Mw(PDADMA)= 35 kDa und 322 kDa. Ellipsometrische Messungen zeigen einen linearen Anstieg der Schichtparameter Nlin und Δdlin mit Erhöhung des Molenbruchs ΦPDADMA(322 kDa). Daraus wird gefolgert, dass die Zusammensetzung in der Adsorptionslösung derjenigen in der Multischicht entspricht. Es wird eine Formel zur Bestimmung der Schichparameter Nlin und Δdlin entwickelt, die zumindest auch auf ternäre Mischungen anwendbar ist. Damit lassen sich die Schichtparameter Nlin und Δdlin bei bekannten Molenbrüchen ΦPDADMA(Mw(PDADMA)) vorhersagen. Der Einfluss der Zusammensetzung der PSS-Adsorptionslösung zeigt ein anderes Verhalten: Die Zusammensetzung des Films entspricht hier nicht derjenigen der Adsorptionslösung. Bereits bei einem Anteil von ΦPSS (76 kDa) = 5% des schweren PSSd Moleküls (95% der Moleküle in der Adsorptionslösung sind leichte PSS Moleküle), findet einerseits kein exponentielles Wachstum statt und die Wachstumsparameter Nlin und Δdlin entsprechen denen solcher PEMs, welche ausschließlich aus schweren PSS Molekülen präpariert wurden. Neutronenreflexionsmessungen bei binären PSS-Mischungen mit schwerem deuteriertem PSSd und leichtem protonierten PSS zeigen, dass bei einer Adsorptionszeit von 30 min, ab ΦPSSd (80,8 kDa)=5% (ΦPSS(10,6 kDa)=95%) lediglich das schwere PSSd in die Multischicht eingebaut wurde. Durch die Streulängendichte wird die genaue Anzahl der PSS bzw. PSSd Moleküle in den PEM quantifiziert und damit die Menge an deponiertem Material bestimmt. Eine Hypothese ist, dass die leichten Moleküle die Oberfläche zwar schneller erreichen, in die Multischicht gelangen und durch den Film diffundieren. Dabei können diese gemäß der IN und OUT Diffusion den Film auch wieder verlassen. Um dies zu verifizieren wird die Adsorptionszeit der PSS Moleküle bei einer binären PSS Mischung mit ΦPSSd(80,8 kDa)=5% reduziert.