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Hintergrund:
Die zunehmende Impfkritik in bestimmten Bevölkerungskreisen wird in Zusammenhang mit der zunehmenden Verbreitung von Komplementärmedizin gebracht. Homöopathie ist einer der stärksten Vertreter unter der wachsenden Komplementär-Medizin. Besonders in der Pädiatrie, wo die meisten Impfungen durchgeführt werden, wird Homöopathie vermehrt eingesetzt. Eine Umfrage aus dem Jahre 1996 zeigte erstmals, dass entgegen der öffentlichen Meinung homöopathische Ärzte in Deutschland keine entschiedenen Impfgegner sind, aber durchaus kritischer und individueller beim Impfen vorgehen.
Methodik:
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Impfeinstellung und Impfverhalten unter niedergelassenen Pädiatern in ganz Deutschland untersucht. Hierbei werden Pädiater mit und ohne Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie gegenübergestellt.
Mittels einer repräsentativen Querschnittuntersuchung wurden im Jahre 2006/2007 50 % (N=3019) aller niedergelassenen Pädiater aus ganz Deutschland per Post (Zufallsstichprobe) zum Thema Impfen befragt. Ergänzend wurden zeitgleich 245 homöopathisch orientierte Pädiater in die anonymisierte Befragung eingeschlossen. Das Instrument wurde zuvor in einer Pilotstudie unter 200 deutschen Pädiatern evaluiert. Die Auswahl der Pädiater erfolgte über Adressverzeichnisse der Kassenärztlichen Vereinigungen und Ärztekammern der verschiedenen Bundesländer, sowie zusätzlich über den Deutschen Zentralverein für homöopathische Ärzte (DZVhÄ) und der Karl und Veronica Carstens (KVC)-Stiftung um eine möglichst große Vergleichsgruppe an homöopathischen Pädiatern zu erhalten. Die Rückläufe der Zufallsziehung, der zusätzlich homöopathischen Pädiater und der Pilotstudie wurden für die Auswertung gepoolt.
Für einen Vergleich wurden mittels 6 (Teil)-Fragen des Erhebungsinstrumentes Pädiater mit und ohne Schwerpunkt-/Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie differenziert. Letztere wurden zusätzlich unterschieden in Pädiater, die Homöopathie oder eine andere alternative/komplementäre Medizin anwenden oder rein konventionelle Medizin betreiben.
Das Impfverhalten wurde im Hinblick auf das Einhalten der STIKO-Empfehlungen anhand von 3 Fragen des Erhebungsinstrumentes als Mittelwert-Score operationalisiert:1. Impfen Sie nach dem empfohlenen Impfkalender der STIKO? 2. Wie würden Sie eigene minderjährige Kinder Impfen? 3. Ab welchem Alter empfehlen Sie in der Regel die erste Durchführung von Impfungen?
Um die Impfeinstellung zu operationalisieren, wurden die skalierten Positionierungen zu 8 vorgegebenen Meinungen zum Impfen zu einem Mittelwert-Score verrechnet. Der Einfluss folgender relevanter Variablen auf Impfeinstellung und Impfverhalten wurde mit einer multivariablen linearen Regression untersucht: Alter, Geschlecht, Ort der Niederlassung, Anteil an Privatpatienten und Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie. Für einen Vergleich mit den Studienergebnissen von 1996 wurde ein Impfkritiker-Index erstellt.
Ergebnisse und Diskussion:
Mit insgesamt 3464 angeschriebenen niedergelassenen Pädiatern (über 50 % aller niedergelassenen Pädiater aus jedem Bundesland) handelt es sich um die bisher größte bundesweite Studie zum Thema Impfen. Die Responserate ist mit insgesamt ca. 67 % überdurchschnittlich hoch, was ein großes Interesse zum Impfthema vermuten lässt. Vor dem Hintergrund einer weitestgehend vollständigen und aktuellen Praxis-Adress-Datenbasis kann diese Studie als deutschlandweit repräsentativ angesehen werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sind trotz leichter methodisch bedingter Einschränkungen in der Konstruktion der Stichprobe einmalig und aussagekräftig.
Pädiater mit und ohne Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie unterscheiden sich im Hinblick auf ihre Impfeinstellung und ihr Impfverhalten (orientiert an den STIKO-Empfehlungen) signifikant. Die überwiegend positive, aber kritische Haltung zum Impfen unter homöopathischen Pädiatern ähnelt den Ergebnissen von P. Lehrke von 1996. Das Vorurteil „Homöopathen seien Impfgegner“ konnte für Kinderärzte aussagekräftig widerlegt werden. Mit ca. 70 % hat die Mehrheit der homöopathisch arbeitenden Pädiater in Deutschland eine positive Einstellung zum Impfen. Sie sind aber auch mehrheitlich individuelle Impfkritiker. Die stärkste Impfkritik ist unter rein klassischen Homöopathen zu finden, welche ca. 47 % der Pädiater mit Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie ausmachen.
Die Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie hat von allen relevanten Variablen den größten Einfluss auf eine impfkritische Einstellung und entsprechendes Verhalten. Abweichungen von den STIKO-Empfehlungen betreffen aber überwiegend spätere Impfungen (überwiegend 1–3 Monate), sowie neuere Impfungen wie gegen Pneumokokken, Varizellen und Meningokokken. Als häufigster Grund für Abweichungen von den STIKO-Richtlinien wurde der Wunsch der Patienten angegeben. Da impfkritische Eltern eher Pädiater mit komplementärmedizinischem Zusatzangebot auswählen, beeinflussen sie auch die Erfahrungen und das Impfverhalten des Arztes. Es kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass sich das Patientenklientel von Homöopathen und Nicht-Homöopathen systematisch unterscheidet. Unterschiedliche Erfahrungen durch den Umgang mit Ungeimpften und den Möglichkeiten homöopathischer Behandlungen könnten die Veränderungen der Impfeinstellung hin zu mehr Impfkritik im Lebenslauf von Homöopathen erklären. Homöopathen geben mit Abstand am häufigsten (über 60 %) eine Veränderung in ihrer Einstellung zum Impfen im Lebenslauf an, Nicht-Homöopathen in nur ca. 10–22 %. Bezüglich der Impfentscheidung der Patienten hat wiederum die persönliche ärztliche Empfehlung als wichtigste Vertrauensperson einen großen Stellenwert. Erfahrungen und Einstellung beeinflussen sich wechselseitig.
Basierend auf der Zufallsstichprobe haben ca. 10 % aller niedergelassenen Pädiater Deutschlands die Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie. Es gibt Hinweise, dass die Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie auf Grund der Patientennachfrage zugenommen hat. Das kann die häufige Anwendung von Homöopathie unter Pädiatern ohne Zusatzbezeichnung Homöopathie (ca. 40 %) erklären. Entsprechend dem marktwirtschaftlichen Prinzip des Gesundheitssystems wird die Homöopathie trotz wissenschaftlich strittiger Studienlage zunehmend von den Kassen vergütet, u.a. um konkurrenzfähig zu bleiben und Kosten vor allem im Bereich chronischer Krankheiten zu reduzieren.
Ausblick:
Ein Arzt sollte sich der Wirkung seiner Impf-Einstellung auf seine Patienten bewusst sein und bei seiner Impfberatung die Erwartungen und auch die Impfkritik seiner Patienten berücksichtigen. Die Komplexität und Vielseitigkeit des Impfthemas sollte den Impfentscheidern (Patienten) nicht vorenthalten werden sondern eine eigenverantwortliche Impfentscheidung (wie gesetzlich vorgesehen) fördern. Eine fundierte, neutrale und individualisierte Impf-Beratung sollte daher fester Bestandteil der medizinischen Ausbildung sein und in der Umsetzung auch entsprechend honoriert werden, unabhängig von der Impfentscheidung der Patienten. Damit können Verunsicherungen durch zT. emotionalisierende und polarisierende Informations-Medien (Internet, soziales Umfeld, Hebammen) vorgebeugt werden.
Bei zunehmender Verbreitung von Komplementärmedizin und speziell der Homöopathie sollten das Thema Komplementärmedizin in der medizinischen Ausbildung fest integriert werden und entsprechend den Möglichkeiten zur Heilungsunterstützung in der Forschung und klinischen Anwendung den entsprechenden Stellenwert bekommen.
Individual white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) growth limitations at treelines in Alaska
(2018)
White spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) is one of the most common conifers in Alaska and various treelines mark the species distribution range. Because treelines positions are driven by climate and because climate change is estimated to be strongest in northern latitudes, treeline shifts appear likely. However, species range shifts depend on various species parameters, probably most importantly on phenotypic plasticity, genetic adaptation
and dispersal. Due to their long generation cycles and their immobility, trees evolved to endure a wide variety of climatic conditions. In most locations, interannual climate variability is larger than the expected climate change until 2100. Thus treeline position is typically thought of as the integrated effect of multiple years and to lag behind gradual climate change by several decades. Past dendrochronological studies revealed that growth of white spruce in Alaska can be limited by several climatic variables, in particular water stress and low temperatures. Depending on how the intensity of climate warming, this could result in a leading range edge at treelines limited by low temperatures and trailing treelines where soil moisture is or becomes most limiting. Climate-growth correlations are the dendrochronological version of reaction norms and describe the relationship between an environmental variable and traits like tree-ring parameters (e.g. ring width, wood density, wood anatomy). These correlations can be used to explore potential effects of climate change on a target species. However, it is known that individuals differ with respect to multiple variables like size, age, microsite conditions, competition status or their genome. Such individual differences could be important because they can modulate climate-growth relationships and consequently also range shifts and growth trends. Removing individual differences by averaging tree-ring parameters of many individuals into site chronologies could be an oversimplification that might bias estimates of future white spruce performance. Population dynamics that emerge from the interactions of individuals (e.g. competition) and the range of reactions to the same environmental drivers can only be studied via individual tree analyses. Consequently, this thesis focuses on factors that might alter individual white spruce’ climate sensitivity and methods to assess such effects. In particular, the research articles included explore three topics:
1. First, clones were identified via microsatellites and high-frequency climate signals of clones were compared to that of non-clonal individuals. Clonal and non-clonal individuals showed similar high-frequency climate signals which allows to use clonal and non-clonal individuals to construct mean site chronologies. However, clones were more frequently found under the harsher environmental conditions at the treelines which could be of interest for the species survival strategy at alpine treelines and is further explored in the associated RESPONSE project A5 by David Würth.
2. In the second article, methods for the exploration and visualization of individual-tree differences in climate sensitivity are described. These methods represent a toolbox to explore causes for the variety of different climate sensitivities found in individual
trees at the same site. Though, overlaying gradients of multiple factors like temperature, tree density and/or tree height can make it difficult to attribute a single cause to the range of reaction norms (climate growth correlations).
3. Lastly, the third article attempts to disentangle the effect of age and size on climate-growth correlations. Multiple past studies found that trees of different Ages responded differently to climatic drivers. In contrast, other studies found that trees do not age like many other organisms. Age and size of a trees are roughly correlated, though there are large differences in the growth rate of trees, which can lead to smaller trees that are older than taller trees. Consequently, age is an imperfect Proxy for size and in contrast to age, size has been shown to affect wood anatomy and thus tree physiology. The article compares two tree-age methods and one tree-size method based on cumulative ring width. In line with previous research on aging and Wood anatomy, tree size appeared to be the best predictor to explain ontogenetic changes in white spruce’ climate sensitivity. In particular, tallest trees exhibited strongest correlations with water stress in previous year July. In conclusion, this thesis is about factors that can alter climate-growth relationships (reaction norms) of white spruce. The results emphasize that interactions between climate variables and other factors like tree size or competition status are important for estimates of future tree growth and potential treeline shifts. In line with previous studies on white spruce in Alaska, the results of this thesis underline the importance of water stress for white spruce.
Individuals that are taller and that have more competitors for water appear to be most susceptible to the potentially drier future climate in Alaska. While tree ring based growth trends estimates of white spruce are difficult to derive due to multiple overlaying low frequency (>10 years) signals, all investigated treeline sites showed highest growth at the treeline edge. This could indicate expanding range edges. However, a potential bottleneck for treeline advances and retreats could be seedling establishment, which should be explored in more detail in the future.
The glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) not only presents the most common tumor of the central nervous system in adults, it is also the most aggressive brain tumor. Although patients suffering from GBM standardly receive a combination of multiple treatments including surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, its prognosis is still poor with a median survival time of only 12-15 months. Therefore, new and effective treatment methods are urgently needed.
A signaling molecule which is both involved in proliferation, migration and invasion of a broad range of healthy and malignant cells is the lipid mediator sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Previous studies have confirmed that sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor 1 (S1PR1) is involved in the regulation of proliferation, invasion, metastasis, vascular maturation and angiogenesis of GBM cells, and is closely related to the occurrence and development of tumors. Thus, ACT-209905 (provided by Actelion Pharmaceuticals) as a selective S1PR1 modulator was applied to gain insights into the molecular processes activated by S1PR1 in GBM cells using two human (LN18, U87MG) and one murine (GL261) GBM cell line.
In our in vitro cell viability analyses, we found that ACT-209905 significantly reduced viability of LN18 cells in a concentration dependent manner. A combined administration of ACT-209905 with S1PR2 inhibitors (Compound 16, Compound 16ME – both provided by ONO Pharmaceuticals, and JTE-013 – commercially available) showed a stronger effect than the single administration demonstrating that both S1PR1 and S1PR2 are involved in growth of GBM cells and may interact with each other. Our results also demonstrated that ACT-209905 can induce apoptosis in GBM cells since caspase 3 activity was induced by the S1PR1 modulator which might therefore play an important role in inhibiting the proliferation of GBM cells. Further, we found a significant inhibitory effect of ACT-209905 on the migration and invasion of LN18 and U87MG GBM cells arguing for a participation of S1PR1 signaling in migration and invasion of GBM cells, too. Stimulation of S1P receptors results in the activation of several kinases such as AKT1 and ERK1/2, correspondingly our immunoblot analyses showed a strong activation of both kinases by S1P which was reduced by ACT-209905 in LN18 cells but not in GL261 cells suggesting that different pathways are activated by S1P in these GBM cell lines. Further studies have to be performed to clarify the role of AKT1 and ERK1/2 in the inhibitory effects of ACT-209905 on GBM proliferation, migration and invasion.
Currently, GBM stem cells are discussed as a reason for resistance against the radiochemotherapy and the recurrence of the tumor. Our immunoblot analyses showed that Nestin and CD133, two marker proteins for GBM stem cells, were higher expressed in GBM cells treated with ACT-209905 compared to control or S1P treated LN18 cells. Further investigations in the future might contribute to the elucidation of an involvement of the S1P receptors in the stem cell behavior of GBM cells. Paradoxically to the up-regulation of CD133 and Nestin by ACT-209905, treatment of LN18 stem-like neurospheres with ACT-209905 showed a significant cytotoxic effect of the compound which was even more pronounced in the stem-like neurosphere cells compared to the adherent parental LN18 cells.
Overall, the studies of this work improve our understanding of the complex mechanisms of S1P signaling in GBM cells and might drive the development of its pharmacological modulation as a new therapeutic principle in GBM. Furthermore, an extended knowledge about the molecular effects of ACT-209905 on GBM cells will broaden the understanding for possible future applications and clinical indications.
Background: Levels or fluctuations in the partial pressure of CO<sub>2</sub> (PCO<sub>2</sub>) may affect outcomes for extremely low birth weight infants. Objectives: In an exploratory analysis of a randomized trial, we hypothesized that the PCO<sub>2</sub> values achieved could be related to significant outcomes. Methods: On each treatment day, infants were divided into 4 groups: relative hypocapnia, normocapnia, hypercapnia, or fluctuating PCO<sub>2</sub>. Ultimate assignment to a group for the purpose of this analysis was made according to the group in which an infant spent the most days. Statistical analyses were performed with analysis of variance (ANOVA), the Kruskal-Wallis test, the χ<sup>2</sup> test, and the Fisher exact test as well as by multiple logistic regression. Results: Of the 359 infants, 57 were classified as hypocapnic, 230 as normocapnic, 70 as hypercapnic, and 2 as fluctuating PCO<sub>2</sub>. Hypercapnic infants had a higher average product of mean airway pressure and fraction of inspired oxygen (MAP × FiO<sub>2</sub>). For this group, mortality was higher, as was the likelihood of having moderate/severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and poorer neurodevelopment. Multiple logistic regression analyses showed an increased risk for BPD or death associated with birth weight (p < 0.001) and MAP × FiO<sub>2</sub> (p < 0.01). The incidence of adverse neurodevelopment was associated with birth weight (p < 0.001) and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH; p < 0.01). Conclusions: Birth weight and respiratory morbidity, as measured by MAP × FiO<sub>2</sub>, were the most predictive of death or BPD and NEC, whereas poor neurodevelopmental outcome was associated with low birth weight and IVH. Univariate models also identified PCO<sub>2</sub>. Thus, hypercapnia seems to reflect greater disease severity, a likely contributor to differences in outcomes.
In the present study, we investigated whether inter-individual differences in vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) would be associated with inter-individual differences in empathy and alexithymia. To this end, we determined resting state HF-HRV in 90 individuals that also completed questionnaires assessing inter-individual differences in empathy and alexithymia. Our categorical and dimensional analyses revealed that inter-individual differences in HF-HRV were differently associated with inter-individual differences in empathy and alexithymia. We found that individuals with high HF-HRV reported more empathy and less alexithymia than individuals with low HF-HRV. Moreover, we even found that an increase in HF-HRV was associated with an increase in empathy and a decrease in alexithymia across all participants. Taken together, these findings indicate that individuals with high HF-HRV are more empathetic and less alexithymic than individuals with low HF-HRV. These differences in empathy and alexithymia may explain why individuals with high HF-HRV are more successful in sharing and understanding the mental and emotional states of others than individuals with low HF-HRV.
Die Atherosklerose ist eine weit verbreitete, mit dem Alter zunehmende Erkrankung der Gefäße, die schwerwiegende Folgeerkrankungen auslösen kann. Zu den Hauptrisikofaktoren gehören Störungen im Lipidstoffwechsel. Insbesondere erhöhte Cholesterin- und Triglyceridspiegel im Blut fördern die Entstehung von atherosklerotischen Läsionen in der Gefäßwand.
Protease-aktivierte Rezeptoren (PAR) spielen in vielen verschiedenen entzündlichen Prozessen unseres Körpers eine große Rolle, dabei ist der PAR-2 aktuell weniger gut erforscht. Der PAR-2 wird durch die Serinprotease Faktor Xa aktiviert und vermittelt proinflammatorische Antworten. Eine wesentliche Rolle des PAR-2 im Lipidstoffwechsel ist derzeit nicht bekannt. Aus der Arbeit von Frau Dr. Flößer war eine Zunahme des Körpergewichts, sowie erhöhte Triglycerid- und Cholesterinspiegel, bedingt durch den Knockout des PAR-2 und des ApoE-Gens bekannt. Dadurch wurde ein Einfluss des PAR-2 auf den Lipidstoffwechsel vermutet.
Das LIGHT-Protein wurde sowohl im Zusammenhang mit atherosklerotischen Läsionen, als auch im Rahmen des Lipidstoffwechsels beschrieben. Ebenso ist eine Interaktion des LIGHT-Proteins mit dem PAR-2 bekannt. Demnach ergab sich die Vermutung, dass der Einfluss des PAR-2 auf den Lipidstoffwechsel über das LIGHT-Protein erfolgt.
Die Analyse der Expression der mRNA in vier verschiedenen Mauslinien ergab eine signifikante Reduktion der Expression der mRNA des LIGHT-Proteins und der Expression der mRNA seiner beiden Rezeptoren HVEM und LTβ-Rezeptor. Da ebenfalls bereits ein Einfluss des LIGHT-Proteins auf die Expression der hepatischen Lipase bekannt war und die hepatische Lipase eine wesentliche Rolle im Lipidstoffwechsel spielt, wurde auch die mRNA-Expression der hepatischen Lipase bestimmt. Es konnte eine erniedrigte Expression der mRNA der hepatischen Lipase festgestellt werden, was die erhöhten Triglycerid- und Cholesterinspiegel begründet. Gegensprüchlich in dieser Arbeit war jedoch, dass das LIGHT-Protein in anderen Arbeiten als negativer Regulator der hepatischen Lipase beschrieben wurde und somit eine verminderte Expression von LIGHT eher zu einer vermehrten Expression der hepatischen Lipase führen würde. Da aber ebenfalls beide Rezeptoren des LIGHT-Proteins vermindert exprimiert wurden und die Interaktion mit der hepatischen Lipase über den LTβ-Rezeptor erfolgt, wird davon ausgegangen, dass die LIGHT-LTβ-Rezeptor Interaktion durch den Knockout des PAR-2 weniger beeinflusst wird und dadurch weiterhin aktiv stattfand.
Zusammenfassend kann festgehalten werden, dass der PAR-2 eine Rolle im Lipidstoffwechsel spielt und zu einer verminderten Expression des LIGHT-Proteins und seiner Rezeptoren führt.
Intranasal Vaccination With Lipoproteins Confers Protection Against Pneumococcal Colonisation
(2018)
Streptococcus pneumoniae is endowed with a variety of surface-exposed proteins representing putative vaccine candidates. Lipoproteins are covalently anchored to the cell membrane and highly conserved among pneumococcal serotypes. Here, we evaluated these lipoproteins for their immunogenicity and protective potential against pneumococcal colonisation. A multiplex-based immunoproteomics approach revealed the immunogenicity of selected lipoproteins. High antibody titres were measured in sera from mice immunised with the lipoproteins MetQ, PnrA, PsaA, and DacB. An analysis of convalescent patient sera confirmed the immunogenicity of these lipoproteins. Examining the surface localisation and accessibility of the lipoproteins using flow cytometry indicated that PnrA and DacB were highly abundant on the surface of the bacteria. Mice were immunised intranasally with PnrA, DacB, and MetQ using cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) as an adjuvant, followed by an intranasal challenge with S. pneumoniae D39. PnrA protected the mice from pneumococcal colonisation. For the immunisation with DacB and MetQ, a trend in reducing the bacterial load could be observed, although this effect was not statistically significant. The reduction in bacterial colonisation was correlated with the increased production of antigen-specific IL-17A in the nasal cavity. Immunisation induced high systemic IgG levels with a predominance for the IgG1 isotype, except for DacB, where IgG levels were substantially lower compared to MetQ and PnrA. Our results indicate that lipoproteins are interesting targets for future vaccine strategies as they are highly conserved, abundant, and immunogenic.
In an aerobic environment the occurrence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a common phenomenon. The diverse roles of ROS in cellular function and in diseases make them a target of interest in many research areas. Substances capable of directly or indirectly reducing the (harmful) effects of ROS are referred to as “antioxidants”. However, the term is applied miscellaneously in the chemical and the biological context to describe different attributes of a substance. In this work the potential of an electrochemical assay to detect different ROS in-vitro was explored. The method was optimized to investigate the radical scavenging activities (antioxidant potential) of trolox and different plant compounds (ascorbic acid, caffeic acid, epigallocatechin gallate, ferulic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, rutin, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract) in-vitro. The obtained data was compared to established antioxidant in-vitro assays. Further, the impact of the plant substances on cellular parameters was evaluated with the electrochemical assay and established cell assays.
The optimization of the electrochemical assay allowed the reproducible detection of ROS. The sensor electrode proved differently sensitive towards individual ROS species. The highest sensitivity was recorded for hydroxyl radicals while superoxide and hydrogen peroxide had little impact on the sensor. Extracellular ROS concentrations could be detected from cell lines releasing elevated ROS into the extracellular space. The antioxidant activity of the investigated plant substances could be demonstrated with all in-vitro assays applied. However, the absolute as well as the relative activity of the individual substances varied depending on the experimental parameters of the assays (pH, radical species, phase, detection method).
The plant compounds modified redox related intracellular parameters in different cell lines. However, a direct correlation between intracellular and extracellular effects of the plant compounds could not be established.
The work demonstrates the feasibility to use the electrochemical assay to sense ROS as well as to evaluate the radical scavenging activity of molecules. The in-vitro antioxidant activities demonstrated for the individual plant substances are not reliable to predict the cellular effects of the molecules.
In the 1940s cytochrome P450 monooxygenases have been discovered and have been the focus of many studies ever since. Although they catalyze very interesting reactions that might find applications in the production of fine chemicals or pharmaceuticals, their low activity and stability often reduces their economic value. Both properties, the activity and the stability, are influenced by the uncoupling of the catalytic cycle.
In this PhD thesis, an assay for the screening of activity and uncoupling of cytochrome P450 enzymes was successfully developed. After finding optimal conditions for the assay, concerning pH and enzyme concentration, the uncoupling of cytochrome P450 BM3 and five mutants (F87Y, R47L, Y51F, A82L and T268A) was investigated. With the results obtained, a comparison of data from literature was possible and revealed similarities. Additionally, through negative controls, the reliability of the assay could be further demonstrated. Although other methods have been described for the detection of hydrogen peroxide formation, the combination of NADPH consumption measurement and hydrogen peroxide formation in parallel was new and represents a very good basis for a pre-screening of large mutant libraries, followed by closer investigation of selected variants.
For the investigation of the activity of the CYP11A1 system, consisting of CYP11A1 and Adx and AdR as redox partner system, the expression and purification for all three proteins was investigated first. For the protein CYP11A1 and Adx, good expression levels were achieved, whereas for AdR the protein concentration obtained was very low. The purification of all three proteins was partially accomplished but left room for improvement. Therefore, in the Master thesis of Christopher Grimm, the pH and temperature stability of all three proteins was further investigated in order to improve conditions used for ion exchange chromatography and to investigate possible conditions for in vitro biocatalysis. As unfortunately even with further investigation of the expression of AdR, no improvement was achieved, a whole-cell system was further investigated. Here, the product formation could be increased 8-fold in comparison to the published data, from 0.27% conversion to 2.2% conversion over 24 h by using a different detergent for substrate solubilization, which might have led to a better substrate supply to the enzyme.
Due to the low activity and stability, a different P450 system, the CYP17A1 enzyme, was subsequently investigated, first by in vitro biocatalysis with the human CYP17A1 expressed in E. coli. Therefore, a suitable redox partner system needed to be found for efficient electron supply of the enzyme. In in vitro biocatalysis, in combination with the Pdx/PdR system of P. putida the CYP17A1 enzyme showed the highest conversion with 91% after 24 h. To investigate the activity of the enzyme further, all active site residues in 4 Å proximity to the bound substrate were exchanged with alanine. After expression of the variants, almost no correctly folded protein was obtained for the variants. Also, after investigating different buffers to possibly enhance the stability, no improvements were achieved. Therefore, a whole-cell approach with the bovine enzyme was chosen in order to investigate the activity of the alanine variants. Here the importance of positions N202, R239, G297, E305, and T306A, described in literature to be important for catalytic activity, was confirmed. Most importantly, three positions that alter the regioselectivity of the enzyme were identified. The reaction of the V483A mutant was therefore also further investigated by preparative biocatalysis. Afterwards the new product was separated by preparative HPLC and identified as 16α- hydroxyprogesterone as confirmed by NMR spectroscopy analysis.
In the last part of the thesis, another screening approach for possible high-throughput screening was investigated. In contrast to the other screening approach, here the investigation of the substrate conversion and the hydrogen peroxide formation were optimized for application in droplets. After finding that DCFH-DA was not sensitive enough towards hydrogen peroxide, the AmplifluTM Red probe was used. As both fluorescent products were found to stay in the aqueous phase above pH 7.4, the conditions investigated for the AmplifluTM Red assay were applied and only NADPH to substrate ratio was investigated by using an uncoupling variant, an active variant from literature and the cytochrome P450 BM3 wild-type enzyme. After finding a good ratio, the five variants used for the investigation of the AmplifluTM Red assay were investigated in the same concentration later on found in the droplets (1 cell per 4 pL), and one variant showed improved product formation compared to wild-type. This finding clearly shows the applicability of the assay for high-throughput screening in droplets.