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In this thesis, size-sensitive phenomena of three-dimensional dust crystals emerged in a low temperature plasma are presented. Depending on the number of particles in the system phase transitions, collective vortex motions and large-scaled expansions can be observed. To investigate these fascinating effects an advanced experimental setup as well as new evaluation methods have been developed. This thesis will present these new techniques and the gained insights.
Ion thrusters are Electric Propulsion systems used for satellites and space missions. Within
this work, the High Efficient Multistage Plasma Thruster (HEMP-T), patented by the
THALES group, is investigated. It relies on plasma production by magnetised electrons.
Since the confined plasma in the thruster channel is non-Maxwellian, the near-field plume
plasma is as well. Therefore, the Particle-In-Cell method combined with a Monte-Carlo
Collision model (PIC-MCC) is used to model both regions. In order to increase the sim-
ulated near-field plume region, a non-equidistant grid is utilised, motivated by the lower
plasma density in the plume. To minimise artificial self-forces at grid points bordered by
cells of different size a modified method for the electric field calculation was developed in
this thesis. In order to investigate the outer plume region, where electric field and collisions
are negligible, a ray-tracing Monte-Carlo model is used. With these simulation methods,
two main questions are addressed in this work.
What are the basic mechanisms for plasma confinement, plasma-wall-interaction
and thrust generation?
For the HEMP-T the plasma is confined by magnetic fields in the thruster channel, generated
by cylindrical permanent magnets with opposite polarity. Due to different Hall parameters,
electrons are magnetised, while ions are not. Therefore, the dominating electron transport
is parallel to the magnetic field lines. In the narrow cusp regions, the magnetic mirror effect
reduces the electron flux towards the wall and confines the electrons like in a magnetic
bottle. At the anode, propellant gas streams into the thruster channel, which gets ionised
by the electrons creating the plasma. As a result of the electron oscillation between the two
cusp regions, ionisation of the propellant gas is efficient.
The magnetic field configuration of the HEMP-T also influences the plasma potential inside
the thruster channel. Close to the symmetry axis, the mainly axial magnetic field results in
a flat potential. At the inner wall, the field configuration reduces the plasma wall interaction
to only the narrow cusp regions. Here, the floating potential of the dielectric channel wall
and its plasma sheath result in a rather low radial potential drop compared to the applied
anode potential. As a result, the electric potential is rather flat and impinging ions at the
thruster channel wall have energies below the sputter threshold energy of the wall material.
Therefore, no sputtering appears at the dielectric wall. At the thruster exit the confinement
by the magnetic field is weakened and the potential drops with nearly the full anode voltage.
The resulting electric field accelerates the generated ions into the plume and generate the
thrust, but they are also able to sputter surfaces. During terrestrial testing, sputteringat vacuum vessel walls leads to the production of impurities. The amount of back-flux
towards the channel exit is determined by the sputter yield of the vacuum chamber wall. A
large distance between thruster exit and vessel wall reduces the back-flux and smooths the
pattern of deposition inside the thruster channel. Dependent on their material, the evolving
deposited layers can get conductive, modify by this the potential distribution and reduce
the thrust.
For the HEMP-T, ions are mainly generated at high potential close to the applied anode
potential. Therefore, the accelerated ions producing the thrust gain the maximum energy
as observed in experiment. Ions emitted from the thruster into different angles in the
plume contribute mainly to the ion current at angles between 30 ◦ and 90 ◦ . They mainly
originate from ionisation at the thruster exit. The resulting angular distribution of the
ejected ion current is close to the one of the experiment, slightly shifted by about ten
degrees to higher emission angles. In front of the thruster exit, electrons are trapped by
electrostatics forces. This enhanced density allows ionisation and an additional electron
density structure establishes.
What are possible physics based ideas for optimisation of an ion thruster?
An optimised thruster should have a high ionisation rate inside the thruster channel, low
erosion and an ion angular distribution with small contributions at high angles for min-
imised thruster satellite interactions. In experiments, the HEMP-T satisfies already quite
nicely these requests. In the simulations, low erosion inside the thruster channel and angular
ion distributions close to the experimental data are demonstrated. However, the ionisation
efficiency is lower and radial ion losses are larger than in experiment. A possible explanation
of these differences is an underestimated transport perpendicular to the magnetic field lines,
well known for magnetised plasmas.
A successful example for an optimisation using numerical simulations is the reduction of
back-flux of sputtered impurities during terrestrial experiments by an improved set-up of
the vacuum vessel. The implementation of baffles reduces the back-flux towards the thruster
exit and therefore deposition inside the channel. These improvements were successfully im-
plemented in the experiment and showed a reduction of artefacts during long time measure-
ments. This leads to a stable performance, as it is expected in space.