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Das humanpathogene Bakterium Staphylococcus aureus kann verschiedene, zum Teil lebensbedrohliche Erkrankungen wie Hautinfektionen (Furunkel, Karbunkel), Lungen-entzündung, Osteomyelitis (Knochenmarksentzündung), Endokarditis (Entzündung der Herzinnenhaut) und Sepsis auslösen. Dabei gehört S. aureus zu den häufigsten Erregern von Krankenhausinfektionen, sogenannten Nosokomialinfektionen. Deren Behandlung mittels Antibiotika stellt aufgrund von multiplen Antibiotikaresistenzen von S. aureus eine immer größere Heraus¬forderung dar, da dieser fähig ist, sich rapide an verändernde Umweltbedingungen anzu¬passen. Die Interaktion des pathogenen Bakteriums mit seiner Umwelt und seinem Wirt ist insbesondere durch den Proteinbestand, der auf der Zelloberfläche exponiert ist, bestimmt. S. aureus exprimiert ein Arsenal an Zellober-flächen-gebundenen Virulenzfaktoren, die zur Kolonisierung und Infektion von humanem Gewebe führen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung und Anwendung von Massen¬spektrometrie-basierten Methoden zur Identifizierung und Quantifizierung der Zellober¬flächen¬-assoziierten Proteine von S. aureus. Dabei ist es gelungen, durch die Gel-freien und GeLC-MS/MS-basierten Methoden Biotinylierung und Trypsin-Behandlung 77% aller be-kannten Oberflächenproteine und zwei Drittel aller nach außen ragenden Membran-veran-kerten Lipoproteine von S. aureus zugänglich zu machen. Bei der Biotinylierung handelt es sich um eine Methode, bei der die Oberflächenproteine von intakten Zellen mit einem membranimpermeablen Reagenz markiert und anschließend über Affinitäts¬chroma-tographie aufgereinigt werden. Dagegen erfolgt bei der Trypsin-Behandlung die proteo-lytische Abspaltung der Oberflächen-exponierten Protein¬domänen. Erstmalig ist durch Markierung der Proteine mit stabilen Isotopen, dem sogenannten 14N/15N-metabolischen Labeling, auch eine relative Quantifizierung der Oberflächenproteine von S. aureus möglich. Bei der Analyse des Oberflächenproteoms von wachsenden und nicht-wachsenden S. aureus Zellen konnten mittels Biotinylierung 146 Oberflächenproteine identifiziert werden. Durch relative Quantifizierung wurde gezeigt, dass Zelloberflächen-assoziierte Adhäsine von S. aureus, wie der Fibrinogen-bindende clumping Faktor B, vorzugsweise während des Wachstums exprimiert werden, während nicht-wachsende Zellen erhöhte Mengen an clumping Faktor A aufweisen. Desweiteren war die Menge an immunodominanten Antigen B auf der Zelloberfläche in der stationären Phase mehr als 10-fach erhöht. Bei dieser Arbeit wurde erstmalig das Gesamt¬proteom des Methicillin-resistenten Staphylococcus aureus COL, bestehend aus cytosolischem, extra¬zellulärem, Membran- und Oberflächenproteom, um¬fassend identifiziert und quantifiziert (Becher et al., 2009). Um die Pathogenität von S. aureus näher zu erforschen, wurde das Oberflächenproteom des Wildtyps mit dem einer sigB-Mutante verglichen. Der alternative Sigma-Faktor SigmaB kontrolliert ein großes Regulon bestehend aus etwa 300 Genen, von denen viele in die Virulenz von S. aureus involviert sind. Durch Kombination von 14N/15N-metabolischen Labeling, Biotinylierung und GeLC-MS/MS konnten 98 Oberflächen-proteine quantifiziert werden. Von den 49 Proteinen, die in der sigB-Mutante verändert vorlagen, waren 21 schon als SigmaB-abhängig oder durch SigmaB beeinflusst bekannt. In dieser Arbeit konnten weitere 28 Oberflächenproteine erstmalig als SigmaB-abhängig beschrieben werden. Die Gruppe der Zelloberflächen-assoziierten Proteine und Virulenz-faktoren, die durch SigmaB beeinflusst werden, wurde so erweitert (Hempel et al., 2010). Durch Trypsin-Behandlung wurden insgesamt 63 Oberflächen¬proteine beim Vergleich vier verschiedener S. aureus Stämme identifiziert. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Oberflächenproteom verschiedener S. aureus Stämme extrem variabel ist. Weniger als 10% der identifizierten Oberflächenproteine aller vier Stämme stimmten überein (Dreisbach et al., 2010). Eine optimale Analyse der Oberflächen¬proteine von S. aureus wird durch eine Kombination von Biotinylierung und Trypsin-Behandlung erreicht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Sortase-Substrate insbesondere durch Trypsin zugänglich sind, während Lipoproteine optimal durch Biotinylierung analysiert werden können. Das Protokoll zur Trypsin-Behandlung wurde modifiziert, stark vereinfacht und ist auch zur Quantifizierung von Oberflächen¬proteinen geeignet. Durch Kombi¬nation beider Methoden mit 14N/15N-metabolischen Labeling konnten 221 Oberflächen¬proteine identifiziert und 158 quantifiziert werden. Hierbei wurde S. aureus unter Eisenmangel-bedingungen untersucht. In den Körperflüssigkeiten von Säugetieren herrschen Eisenmangelbedingungen, und diese fungieren als wichtiges Wirtssignal für die Bakterien um Virulenzproteine zu exprimieren. Unter diesen infektionsrelevanten in vitro Bedingungen wurden insbesondere Zelloberflächenproteine wie die eisenabhängigen Häm-bindenden Proteine IsdA, IsdB, IsdC und IsdD, sowie lipidver¬ankerte Eisen-bindende Proteine stark induziert gefunden (Hempel et al., unpublished).
With the development of new functional genomics methods that can access the whole genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome more comprehensive insights in cellular processes are possible. Largely based on these advances, our knowledge about molecular constituents for many organisms is increasing at a tremendous rate. Until today, the genomes of several organisms including pathogenic bacteria are already sequenced and pave the way for metabolic network constructions. Interest in metabolomics, the global profiling of metabolites in a cell, tissue or organism, has been rapidly increased. A range of analytical techniques, including nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS), Fourier Transform mass spectrometry (FT–MS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are required in order to maximize the number of metabolites that can be identified in a matrix. With the help of microbial metabolomics (qualification and quantification of a huge variety of metabolites from a bacterium) deciphering of the bacterial metabolism is feasible. The metabolome pipeline or workflow encompasses the processes of (i) sample generation and preparation, (ii) establishment of analytical techniques (iii) collection of analytical data, raw data pre-processing, (iv) data analysis and (v) data integration into biological questions. The present work contributes to the above mentioned steps in a metabolomics workflow. A specific focus was set to the exo- and endometabolome analysis of Gram-positive bacteria
Staphylococcus (S.) aureus is the most common cause of nosocomial infections and the species is becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics. In contrast, about 35% of the healthy population are colonized with S. aureus in the anterior nares. The genetic make-up of this species is highly diverse. Mobile genetic elements comprise about 15% of the S. aureus genome. They encode many virulence factors like the 21 different known staphylococcal superantigens (SAgs), highly potent activators of T lymphocytes. Besides their well known causative role in food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome, information about SAg involvement in pathogenesis is limited. On the other hand, the human host and its immune response are also highly diverse. This study focuses on SAgs, because they are potent virulence factors that are highly diverse and therefore mirror of the variability of the species S. aureus. The goals of this work were (i) to identify virulence determinants by comparing the prevalence of SAg genes and phages among colonizing and invasive S. aureus isolates and to correlate it with the clonal background, (ii) to determine the prevalence and the development of anti-SAg antibodies in healthy S. aureus carriers and noncarriers as well as in bacteremia patients, and (iii) to elucidate the reasons for the selective lack of neutralizing serum antibodies specific for a subgroup of SAgs, the egc SAgs. In search for a molecular-epidemiological associations between SAgs and different diseases caused by S. aureus we investigated the distribution of SAg genes and/ or bacteriophages and correlated this with the clonal background, determined by spa genotyping. The analysis of more than 700 S. aureus isolates from nasal colonization, bacteremia or furunculosis revealed that SAg-encoding mobile genetic elements and bacteriophages were strongly associated with the clonal background. As a consequence, each clonal lineage was characterized by a typical SAg gene and phage repertoire. Therefore, we suggest that the simultaneous assessment of virulence gene profiles and the genetic background strongly increases the discriminatory power of genetic investigations into the mechanisms of S. aureus pathogenesis. However, we found no association of SAg genes with bacteremia or furunculosis. While functional neutralization assays closely mimic the protective action of anti-SAg antibodies in vivo, they are labor-intensive and time-consuming. A fast and easy method for the simultaneous quantification of antibody binding to multiple staphylococcal antigens is the Luminex® technology. Using serum samples from persistent carriers and noncarriers we showed a strong correlation between antibody binding and neutralizing capacity against the SAg TSST-1. This assay confirmed the astonishing lack of antibodies against egc SAgs in healthy carriers and noncarriers, which was previously described by Holtfreter and coworkers. Since colonization is probably not sufficient to induce a robust antibody response as revealed by experimental colonization with S. aureus, we propose that (minor) infections are required to induce the high titers of non-egc SAg-neutralizing antibodies in healthy adults. To test this, we investigated whether SAgs elicit a neutralizing antibody response during S. aureus bacteremia. At the acute phase of the disease most patients already had neutralizing antibodies against non-egc SAgs, and antibody titers frequently increased during infection. Notably, egc SAgs did not elicit a boost or de novo generation of specific antibodies. The “egc gap” in the antibody response, which has now been shown in healthy adults, as well as following systemic infection with S. aureus, is astonishing. After all, egc SAgs are by far the most prevalent SAgs. In search for an explanation, the intrinsic properties of three recombinant egc (SEI, SElM, SElO) and non-egc SAgs (SEB, SElQ, TSST-1) were compared in depth. Egc and non-egc SAgs were very similar with regard to induced T cell proliferation, cytokine profiles, and gene expression of human immune cells. However, there was a striking difference in the regulation of the two groups of SAgs by S. aureus in bacterial culture. We conclude that the differential regulation of egc and non-egc SAg has an impact on the immune response. But how are SAgs regulated by S. aureus during its interaction with the host? Up until now most research on regulation of virulence factors has been performed in vitro. The immune response can help to shed light on this problem, because it is an exquisitely specific sensor for the exposure to different antigens. The high prevalence of neutralizing serum antibodies against non-egc SAgs indicates that most healthy adults have been exposed to these toxins during their encounters with S. aureus. For egc SAgs this remains an open question. However, initial data indicate that the egc SAg genes are transcribed during nasal colonization.
The introduction of two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE) enabled the separation and visualization of a substantial fraction of an organism’s entire proteome, and when mass spectrometry entered protein science, these proteins became even amenable to identification on a grand scale. Nevertheless, important classes of proteins elude a separation on classical 2 D gels, as the ones showing extremes in isoelectric point or molecular weight, and foremost very hydrophobic proteins naturally embedded in lipid membranes. This thesis aimed at the establishment and adaptation of alternatives to 2-D PAGE. New techniques allowing for an identification and quantification of critical protein classes were designed and adopted to physiological questions in the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. In a comprehensive study on cytoplasmic proteins of S. aureus COL the number of proteins identified by a 2-D gel based approach could be extended by 650 proteins employing gel free technologies. Application of these complementary methods resulted in the establishment of a comprehensive reference map of the cytosolic proteome in growing and non-growing S. aureus cells which can serve as basis for further physiological investigations. Gel free separation of complex protein digests was likewise used in a quantitative study on heat stress in B. subtilis. By implementation of the iTRAQ® technology four different physiological states could be relatively quantified in one experiment. A parallel generation of 2-D gel based data enabled the depiction of strengths and weaknesses of protein quantitation by both, spot intensities on 2-D gels and iTRAQ® signal intensities in MS/MS spectra. Furthermore, new insights into heat sensitivity of pivotal enzymes involved in amino acid biosynthesis could be delivered. The institution of gel free approaches and advancements in 2-D PAGE provide the tools to penetrate into yet unamenable scopes of proteomes. A review on proteome coverage in B. subtilis gives an overview on the strategies which have been explored for most comprehensive protein identification in various sub-proteomes. Although more than one third of B. subtilis’ open reading frames could be demonstrated on protein level, one has to be aware of the fact that it still is a long way to achieve complete coverage of its proteome. Integral membrane proteins make up about one quarter of the entirety of proteins in a cell. Despite their large portion they are clearly understudied due to the intricacy of identification. Their low abundance and non-accessibility of membrane-spanning domains represent major experimental difficulties. The establishment of a protocol efficiently depleting cytosolic proteins by membrane shaving and targeting trans-membrane peptides by novel digestion strategies essentially facilitated identification of highly hydrophobic integral membrane proteins. This protocol was not only successfully applied to the membrane proteome of growing S. aureus cells, but was shown to be applicable in B. subtilis as well. Both studies displayed the novel membrane shaving approach to be highly complementary to a previously established separation of membrane proteins via 1 D PAGE. A combination of the two techniques resulted in identification of about half of the theoretical membrane proteome in both bacteria, and hence layed the foundation for advanced and quantitative analyses. In this regard, 14N/15N metabolically labeled membrane samples of growing and non-growing cells of S. aureus COL were relatively quantified revealing a significant difference in amount for more than one third of the proteins. A corresponding experimental setup was used to compare the membrane proteomes of S. aureus SA113 and its mutant deficient in the lysylphosphatidylglycerol synthetase MprF. Interesting quantitative differences were obtained for proteins most likely involved in the regulation of cellular surface net charge as well as for virulence-associated proteins.
Aktivierung von humanen Thrombozyten durch Staphylococcus aureus und seine Sekretionsprodukte
(2008)
Die Ansichten über die Funktion der Thrombozyten unterliegen derzeit einem Wandel. Neben dem Verschluss von Endothelläsionen spielen sie eine Rolle in der Pathologie der Artherosklerose, der Endokarditis und weiterer Erkrankungen und es existieren Hinweise auf eine Beteiligung bei der Immunantwort über die Expression von CD40L (Elzey et al., 2003). Ihre übermäßige Aktivierung und damit ihr Verbrauch bei der DIC sind noch nicht endgültig aufgeklärt. Zu dieser schwerwiegenden Komplikation im Gerinnungssystem kann es unter anderem durch eine Bakteriämie bzw. Sepsis mit dem grampositiven Erreger Staphylococcus aureus kommen, der in jüngster Zeit durch eine weit reichende Resistenzentwicklung in den Mittelpunkt der Forschung gerückt ist. Die Sepsis ist mit einer Letalität von 30 – 50% trotz modernster Intensivmedizin weiter ein ernstes Problem und grampositive Erreger wie S. aureus verursachen einen großen Anteil der Fälle (Moerer et al., 2004). Die Interaktion von Thrombozyten und S. aureus wurde bisher immer unter dem Aspekt des direkten Kontakts dieser Zellen untersucht, jedoch scheint auch eine Betrachtung der Sekretionsprodukte und ihrer Auswirkungen auf Thrombozyten wegweisend, denn nicht immer ist bei Auftreten von septischen Gerinnungskomplikationen eine Bakteriämie nachweisbar. In dieser Arbeit sollte daher die thrombozytenaktivierende Wirkung von Sekretionsprodukten von S. aureus untersucht werden, es sollte eine Annäherung an die Identität dieser Substanzen erfolgen und es sollte geklärt werden, ob der menschliche Organismus Abwehrmechanismen gegen diesen spezifischen Angriffsweg besitzt. Dazu wurden 20 kommensale und 20 invasive (aus Blutkulturen gewonnene) Isolate von S. aureus sowie die Laborstämme RN6390, RN6911 (RN6390Δagr) und ALC136 (RN6390ΔsarA) bis zur stationären Wuchsphase kultiviert und ihr zellfreier Kulturüberstand untersucht. Das Sekretom von RN6390 und seiner regulatordefizienten Mutanten ist bekannt (Ziebandt et al., 2001). Die Thrombozytenaggregation wurde größtenteils in einem einfachen Funktionstest mit gewaschenen Thrombozyten gemessen. Weitere Tests wurden mit gewaschenen Erythrozyten durchgeführt. 60% der Isolate sezernieren thrombozytenaggregationsauslösende Substanzen, dabei ist die Herkunft des Isolats (kommensal oder invasiv) und die im Kulturüberstand enthaltene Gesamtproteinmenge nicht entscheidend. 35% der Isolate sezernieren ausreichend hämolysierende Substanzen, dies ist ebenfalls unabhängig von ihrer Herkunft. Die zellaktivierenden Substanzen waren hitzeempfindlich, daher konnten Zellwandbestandteile wie Lipoteichonsäure oder Peptidoglykane als Verursacher ausgeschlossen werden. Mittels PCR wurden die genetischen Anlagen der verschiedenen Hämolysine der Isolate untersucht. Die thrombozytenaggregierende und hämolysierende Wirkung von alpha-Toxin konnte in dieser Arbeit nachvollzogen werden (Bhakdi et al., 1991). Weiterhin konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass verschiedene Protease-Typen von S. aureus an der Thrombozytenaggregation beteiligt sind. Diese Ergebnisse konnten bei der Untersuchung von RN6390 und seiner Mutanten bestätigt werden. Die aggregationsauslösenden Substanzen sind positiv durch den globalen Genregulator agr reguliert. Eine Koinkubation mit Serum, aus Serum gewonnenen IgG und IgG-Präparationen führte zu einer konzentrationsabhängigen Hemmung der Aggregation ausgelöst durch bakterielle Kulturüberstände. Insgesamt handelt es sich bei der durch Sekretionsprodukte von S. aureus ausgelösten Thrombozytenaggregation um ein multifaktorielles Geschehen, welches zur Pathogenese der Gerinnungsstörungen bei einer Sepsis oder Infektion beitragen kann. Die Aggregation kann durch im Serum enthaltene IgG in vitro gehemmt werden. In weiteren Untersuchungen muss die genaue Identität dieser Antikörper gefunden werden. Dies kann als neuer Ansatzpunkt in der Behandlung der Gerinnungskomplikationen während eine S. aureus- Sepsis dienen, zusätzlich zu bisherigen Strategien der Substitution und medikamentösen Intensivtherapie.
Das Gram-positive Bakterium Staphylococcus aureus besiedelt die menschliche Haut und die oberen Atemwege, z.B. die Nase. Aus noch unbekannten Gründen können die Bakterien gelegentlich einen pathogenen Charakter entwickeln und Krankheiten wie Furunkulose, Pneumonien oder Sepsis verursachen. Dieses pathogene Potenzial in Verbindung mit dem Auftreten von zahlreichen Antibiotika-Resistenzen in vielen klinisch relevanten S. aureus-Stämmen stellt ein Risiko für die menschliche Gesundheit dar. Deshalb ist es notwendig, potenzielle Effekte der bakteriellen Produkte, die die eukaryotischen Wirtszellen relevanter Organsysteme beeinflussen könnten, zu erforschen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, spezifische Elemente der frühen Signaltransduktion, der Genregulation und der physiologischen Antworten von humanen immortalisierten Atemwegsepithelzellen (S9) auf Kontakt mit Staphylococcus aureus-Zellkulturüberständen sowie rekombinant hergestellten individuellen Virulenzfaktoren (Hämolysin A (Hla, ein porenformendes Toxin) und Hämolysin B (Hlb, ein Enzym mit Sphingomyelinase-Aktivität)) zu untersuchen. Diese Ansätze dienen dazu, Hinweise auf die Identität sezernierter Stoffwechselprodukte von S. aureus zu erhalten, die in den eukaryotischen Wirtszellen zu direkten Abwehr- oder Vermeidungsreaktionen (angeborene Immunität) oder zu Bakterien-induziertem „Fehlverhalten“ führen, das möglicherweise (Mit-)Ursache der Pathogenität einiger Stämme des Bakteriums ist. Quantitative Western-Blot-Analysen mit löslichen Proteinextrakten von S9-Zellen offenbarten dabei eine Aktivierung der Erk-Typ-MAPK, der p38 MAPK und der Akt1/3, aber keine Aktivierung der c-Jun N-terminalen Kinase (JNK) oder Akt2 infolge der Behandlung mit steril-filtrierten S. aureus-Überständen aus der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase (OD540nm = 1), der stationären Wachstumsphase (OD540nm = 10) bzw. nach der Behandlung mit rekombinant hergestellten S. aureus Hämolysinen (rHla, rHlb). Analysen der Produkte sogenannter „früher Gene“ zeigten eine moderate Erhöhung der Expression von c-Jun und Egr-1, und eine stärkere Erhöhung der Expression von c-Fos nach der Behandlung der S9-Zellen mit den bakteriellen Überständen oder rekombinanten Toxinen (rHla, rHlb). Da Atemwegsepithelzellen bei Kontakt mit potenziell pathogenen Bakterien bzw. sekretorischen Faktoren dieser Bakterien Chemokine zur Rekrutierung von Neutrophilen sekretieren, (speziell IL-8), wurde ein Multiplex-Assay-System eingesetzt, mit dem es möglich war, 11 verschiedene Zytokine im Kulturüberstand der S9-Zellen nach Behandlung der Zellen mit den bakteriellen OD10-Überständen bzw. rekombinanten Hla oder Hlb zu analysieren. Die S9-Zellen reagierten dabei auf die Behandlung mit dem Überstand, Hla oder Hlb mit der Sekretion der pro-inflammatorischen Zytokine IL-8, IFN-γ und IL-6, und diese Zytokin-Expression wurde teilweise vermittelt über die Signalwege der Erk-Typ-MAPK und der p38 MAPK. Weiter konnte gezeigt werden, dass Atemwegsepithelzellen infolge der Behandlung mit bakteriellem Überstand bzw. Hla Zellformveränderungen unterliegen und ihre Integrität verlieren. Dieses könnte parazelluläre Wege im Epithel öffnen, und so den Bakterien ermöglichen, ins Innere des Wirtskörpers vorzudringen.
Understanding of the regulatory mechanisms controlling stress gene expression of S.aureus in response to environmental stress is very essential in studying its fitness and virulence. In this work, the changes in protein expression profiles as well as the gene transcription of S.aureus after heat exposure, osmotic stress and in response to the antibiotic puromycin were studied in order to provide detailed insights into the response of S.aureus to various kinds of environmental stress under in vitro conditions, namely: (1) to investigate the global response of S.aureus to heat stress conditions using transcriptomic and proteomic analyses. (2) to study the transcriptome and proteome of S.aureus in response to antibiotic substance puromycin. (3) to define the proteome signatures of S.aureus under NaCl stress condition. (4) to complete the proteome map of cytoplasmic proteins of S.aureus by identifying proteins exclusively synthesized during the exposure to stress. Firstly, the high resolution 2-D protein gel electrophoresis technique combined with MALDI-TOF-MS and a DNA array approach were used to investigate the cellular response of S.aureus to heat stress. A switch from normal growth temperature to high temperature condition revealed complex changes in the protein expression pattern as well as the genes expression profile. The effect of puromycin stress on S.aureus cells was analyzed, using a gel-based proteomic approach and transcriptomic analyses with DNA microarrays. We compared the protein synthesis pattern as well as the transcription data of S.aureus in response to puromycin stress with that in response to heat shock. The results demonstrated that both stress conditions induced specific, overlapping and general responses. Finally, the protein expression profile of S.aureus in response to NaCl stress was analyzed with 2D gel based proteomic approach. Our proteome analyses revealed the repression of the synthesis of many enzymes belong to different metabolism pathways . In summary, the signatures for stress or starvation stimuli can be used as diagnostic tools for the prediction of the mode of action of new antibiotics or for studying the physiological state of cells grown. Expression of the respective genes under in vivo conditions could provide some ideas on the environmental signals that specifically influence the survival of S.aureus within and outside the host.
The human antibody response to experimental colonization with Staphylococcus aureus NCTC8325-4
(2008)
The four main work packages and their most important results are briefly described as following. 1. Characterization of the extracellular proteome of S. aureus NCTC8325-4 Reference maps of the extracellular proteins of S. aureus NCTC8325-4 were produced at pH ranges 6-11 and 4-7. In total, 119 (pH 6-11) and 177 (pH 4-7) protein spots were identified, corresponding to 48 and 114 proteins, respectively. Among them were many well-known virulence factors such as alpha-hemolysin (Hla), beta-hemolysin Hlb, gamma-hemolysin subunits (HlgA-C), hyaluronate lyase (HysA) and staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 11 (Ssl11). We also detected various extracellular enzymes, which can cause tissue degradation and are involved in nutrient acquisition, for example, autolysin (Atl), glycerol ester hydrolase (Geh), lipase (Lip), thermonuclease (Nuc), several serine proteases SplA-F (SplA-F), V8 protease (SspA), cysteine protease (SspB), staphopain thiol proteinase (88195808, SspP). Many of these proteins probably also contribute to the virulence of S. aureus. 2. Optimization of a 2-D immunoblot (IB) method for the comprehensive investigation of IgG binding to S. aureus extracellular proteins (strain NCTC8325-4) The immune proteome of S. aureus NCTC8325-4 was revealed by probing 2-D blots of S. aureus extracellular proteins at the two pH ranges 6-11 and 4-7 with a pool of sera from 16 volunteers. IgG binding was detected with high sensitivity using a peroxidase-coupled secondary Ab in combination with an ECL-substrate. With application of the software package Delta2D, we could clearly define 66 immune reactive spots on the immunoblots (IBs) of pH range 6-11 and 38 spots on IBs of pH range 4-7. 72 of these 104 immune reactive spots could be identified by matching the IBs with the protein reference maps. These spots represented 36 identified proteins, many of which are known virulence factors, or they are involved in bacterial cell wall biosynthesis and degradation. Generally, the most abundant proteins were also highly immune reactive, but there was no strict correlation between protein abundance and immune reactivity. Some low abundance proteins, especially basic proteins, showed high immune reactivity on 2-D IBs, for example, Atl, 88195808 (SspP) and iron-regulated surface determinant protein A (IsdA). On the other hand, we observed proteins, which were present in large amounts but did not bind IgG such as peptidoglycan hydrolase (LytM) and a hypothetical protein 88193909 (SAOUHSC_00094). 3. Determination of the anti-staphylococcal Ab profiles of S. aureus carriers and noncarriers Comparing the serum IgG binding patterns of sera from the 16 individual volunteers, we observed pronounced heterogeneity in total IgG binding, spot patterns and spot intensities. Five spots were stronger in carriers than in noncarriers (P< 0.05, Mann-Whitney U test). These spots represent IgG binding to SspA, SspB, IsaA, and two hypothetical proteins. A principal component analysis based on differential IgG binding to these spots showed that the carriers were more closely related to each other than the noncarriers, but that they could not be clearly separated from the noncarriers. 4. Does experimental colonization induce changes of the anti-staphylococcal Ab profiles? Finally, we tested whether symptom-free experimental colonization of the 16 volunteers with S. aureus NCTC8325-4 elicited an IgG response. When we compared sera obtained before colonization with those taken 4 weeks after the inoculation with the laboratory S. aureus strain, we did not observe major changes in the Ab patterns. We conclude that short- term colonization with a strain of low virulence does not suffice to induce an Ab production, which is comparable to that present already before the colonization. Thus, either long term high density colonization is required, or as we consider most likely, the adaptive immune response is primarily triggered by (minor) S. aureus infections. Taken together, in this work we have separated the soluble proteins from complex extracellular S. aureus protein extracts with good reproducibility, large coverage (pH 6-11 and 4-7) and high resolution. With application of an ECL substrate, our 2-D immunoblotting procedure resulted in the highly sensitive detection of IgG binding over a wide range of signal intensities. The most important finding with this technique was the pronounced variability of anti-staphylococcal Ab profiles in healthy adults. This could well explain differences in susceptibility to S. aureus infection and its complications. The Ab responses are presumably triggered by long-term colonization or, more likely, by minor infections with S. aureus, since experimental nasal colonization of healthy volunteers with a bacterial strain of low virulence did not induce impressive changes in the Ab profiles.
SUMMARY To date, Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of nosocomial infections and the species is becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics. Beyond this, S. aureus colonises the nasal mucosa of circa 35% of the healthy population, so-called carriers. Importantly, S. aureus nasal carriage is a major risk factor for the development of S. aureus infections, which are commonly caused by the colonising strain. This underlines the importance of host factors for the outcome of S. aureus-host interactions. Despite the clinical importance of nasal carriage, little is known about humoral immune responses triggered by colonisation. Therefore, this thesis was focussed on the anti-staphylococcal antibody responses of S. aureus carriers and noncarriers. Staphylococcal superantigens (SAgs) served as indicator antigens for our studies. SAgs are virulence factors with extraordinary variability in the species S aureus and act as extremely potent T cell mitogens. To date, 19 different SAg gene loci are known in the species S. aureus, but molecular-epidemiological studies on the distribution of these genes are limited. Therefore, we established five multiplex PCRs for the detection of all known SAgs. With this robust and high-throughput technique we analysed the SAg gene patterns of more than 300 isolates, including 107 nasal isolates of S. aureus carriers and 88 blood culture isolates of hospital patients from Western Pomerania. The SAg gene patterns were highly heterogeneous, which can be explained by their localisation on mobile genetic elements (MGE), such as genomic islands, pathogenicity islands, phages and plasmids. Most isolates (~80%) harboured SAg genes, on average five to six, and SAgs of the enterotoxin gene cluster (egc) were by far the most prevalent. Additionally, we observed a strict correlation between the presence of SAg genes and the T cell mitogenic potency of clinical isolates. SAg-encoding MGEs can be distributed by two distinct mechanisms: horizontal transfer by bacteriophages and vertical transmission to daughter cells. To investigate the distribution of SAg genes within the S. aureus population, we determined the clonal relationship of our isolates by spa genotyping. Interestingly, SAg-gene encoding MGEs were not randomly distributed, but rather closely linked to clonal lineages. Each clonal lineage was characterised by defined combinations of SAg genes. These data suggest that the simultaneous assessment of virulence gene profiles and the genetic background strongly enhances the discriminatory power of genetic investigations into the mechanisms of S. aureus virulence. Indeed, the comparison of virulence genes within each clonal complex indicated a role in invasiveness for some MGEs, e.g. the exfoliative toxin D-encoding pathogenicity island, while rendering it unlikely for SAgs. It is known that neutralising serum antibodies against the SAgs SEA, SEB, SEC, SED and TSST-1 are frequently present in healthy individuals. However, the neutralising antibody profiles against more recently described SAgs or complex SAg cocktails as secreted by clinical isolates had not been determined so far. Therefore, we screened more than 100 sera for their SAg neutralising capacity with a neutralisation assay. We observed a marked heterogeneity and surprisingly large “gaps” in the neutralising capacity. Interestingly, the egc SAgs were inhibited only rarely (5-10%), whereas between 32 and 86% of the tested sera neutralised “classical” SAgs. This “egc gap” in the SAg-neutralising antibody profiles of healthy individuals was unexpected, since egc SAgs are by far the most prevalent SAgs. We could demonstrate that the “egc gap” is probably not due to different T cell activating properties of egc SAgs compared to classical SAgs, but rather to a differential regulation of SAg gene expression. S. aureus carriers have an increased risk of developing an S. aureus bacteraemia, which is in most cases caused by the colonising strain. Intriguingly, a large prospective clinical trial revealed a considerably higher mortality in noncarriers with invasive S. aureus strains compared to carriers with invasive disease. To explain these paradoxical findings, we hypothesised that in carriers partial immunity against the colonising strain may contribute to their improved outcome. We used SAgs as strain-specific indicator antigens. Importantly, sera from persistent carriers neutralised SAgs of their colonising strain with significantly higher efficiency than sera from noncarriers. This antibody response was strain-specific, since the antibody response of carriers against other SAgs did not differ from that of noncarriers. Thus, colonisation with S. aureus confers a strong and strain-specific antibody response against staphylococcal SAgs. We suggest that in carriers neutralising antibodies directed against SAgs and other staphylococcal virulence factors confer partial protection during systemic infections. This could explain the better prognosis of carriers with S. aureus bacteraemia compared to noncarriers. Moreover, our data imply that the key to understanding the pathogenesis of S. aureus disease may lie in the identification of host factors rather than bacterial factors. Such host factors could be the immune status and gene polymorphisms that contribute to colonisation, susceptibility to infection and outcome of infection. Finally, while the treatment of S. aureus bacteraemia with pooled immunoglobulins was performed in the past without significant success, our findings on strain-specific antibody profiles suggest that therapies with customised cocktails of monoclonal antibodies could have a higher efficacy.