Institut für Med. Biochemie u. Molekularbiologie
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Abstract
G‐quadruplexes have attracted growing interest in recent years due to their occurrence in vivo and their possible biological functions. In addition to being promising targets for drug design, these four‐stranded nucleic acid structures have also been recognized as versatile tools for various technological applications. Whereas a large number of studies have yielded insight into their remarkable structural diversity, our current knowledge on G‐quadruplex stabilities as a function of sequence and environmental factors only gradually emerges with an expanding collection of thermodynamic data. This minireview provides an overview of general rules that may be used to better evaluate quadruplex thermodynamic stabilities but also discusses present challenges in predicting most stable folds for a given sequence and environment.
Reduction and oxidation reactions are essential for biochemical processes. They are part of metabolic pathways and signal transduction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) as second messengers and oxidative modifications of cysteinyl (Cys) residues are key to transduce and translate intracellular and intercellular signals. Dysregulation of cellular redox signaling is known as oxidative distress, which has been linked to various pathologies, including neurodegeneration. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative pathology linked to both, abnormal amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, generating Aβ peptide, and Tau hyperphosphorylation and aggregation. Signs of oxidative distress in AD include: increase of ROS (H2O2, O2•−), decrease of the levels or activities of antioxidant enzymes, abnormal oxidation of macromolecules related to elevated Aβ production, and changes in mitochondrial homeostasis linked to Tau phosphorylation. Interestingly, Cys residues present in APP form disulfide bonds that are important for intermolecular interactions and might be involved in the aggregation of Aβ. Moreover, two Cys residues in some Tau isoforms have been shown to be essential for Tau stabilization and its interaction with microtubules. Future research will show the complexities of Tau, its interactome, and the role that Cys residues play in the progression of AD. The specific modification of cysteinyl residues in redox signaling is also tightly connected to the regulation of various metabolic pathways. Many of these pathways have been found to be altered in AD, even at very early stages. In order to analyze the complex changes and underlying mechanisms, several AD models have been developed, including animal models, 2D and 3D cell culture, and ex-vivo studies of patient samples. The use of these models along with innovative, new redox analysis techniques are key to further understand the importance of the redox component in Alzheimer's disease and the identification of new therapeutic targets in the future.
Despite the extensive ongoing research, there still exist plenty of diseases whose mechanisms have not yet been fully understood, one such example being proteasome-related disorders. Over the last few years, an increasing number of studies have been initiated
to elucidate their driving pathophysiological mechanisms. Determining the systematic effects of genomic alterations occurring in genes encoding 19S proteasome subunits is a key to comprehend the molecular basis of syndromic intellectual disability (ID) pathogenesis and
the subsequent design of new targeted therapies. Therefore, the main objective of my research was to contribute to the identification of potential drivers of syndromic ID, and thereby pave the way for the development of new targeted therapy approaches. In this regard, my aim was to characterize tissue, proteomic and metabolomic changes in cells from patients with PSMC5 mutations and uncover a potential dysregulation of various biochemical and/or inflammatory pathways.
To this end, I undertook a comparative examination of control and patient T cells expanded from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). First, I assessed the proteasome composition in these samples (both in its denaturized and native form), by means of
SDS-PAGE, native PAGE and western-blotting. Moreover, I determined proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity by measure of Suc-LLVY-AMC peptidase activity assay. In addition, I analysed the activation status of the ER stress and mTOR pathway by RT-PCR and SDS-PAGE /western-blotting prior to a subsequent analysis of T-cell markers.
The data show that the investigated p.(Pro320Arg) and p.(Arg201Trp) de novo heterozygous missense mutations in the PSMC5 gene do not cause haploinsufficiency as the steady-state expression level of the PSMC5/Rpt6 full-length protein does not vary between control and patient cells. Further analysis of control and patient T cells under non-reducing conditions revealed that PSMC5/Rpt6 mutants were less efficiently incorporated into 26S proteasome complexes than their wild-type counterparts. The failure to assemble PSMC5/Rpt6 into fully mature proteasomes was associated with a reduced proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity in patient T cells, as determined by in-plate assays. These data unambiguously demonstrate that both of the p.(Pro320Arg) and p.(Arg201Trp) PSMC5 mutations identified in patients suffering from syndromic ID are loss-of-function mutations. Interestingly, my data further show that proteasome dysfunction in these patients was accompanied by abnormalities in mTOR signalling and T-cell differentiation, as determined by western-blotting and flow cytometry, respectively.
Altogether, our data identified for the first time PSMC5 as a disease-causing gene for
a syndromic form of ID. How proteasome dysfunction caused by PSMC5 variants contributes to disease pathogenesis, remains to be fully determined.
Chagas’ disease (CD), caused by the hemoflagellate protozoan, Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in most countries of Latin America. Heart failure (HF) is often a late manifestation of chronic CD, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Inflammatory processes mediated by cytokines play a key role in the pathogenesis and progression of CD. Keeping in view the inflammatory nature of CD, this study investigated the possible role of 21 different inflammatory cytokines as biomarkers for prediction and prognosis of CD. The plasma concentration of these cytokines was measured in a group of patients with CD (n = 94), and then compared with those measured in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) from idiopathic causes (n = 48), and with control subjects (n = 25). Monovariately, plasma levels of cytokines such as stem cell growth factor beta (SCGF beta), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), monokine induced by interferon gamma (CXCL9), and macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF) were significantly increased in CD patients with advanced HF compared to control group. None of the cytokines could demonstrate any prognostic potency in CD patients, and only MIF and stromal derived factor-1 alpha (CXCL12) showed significance in predicting mortality and necessity for heart transplant in DCM patients. However, multivariate analysis prognosticated a large proportion of CD and DCM patients. In CD patients, HGF and Interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40) together separated 81.9% of 3-year survivors from the deceased, while in DCM patients, CXCL12, stem cell factor (SCF), and CXCL9 together discriminated 77.1% of survivors from the deceased. The significant increase in plasma concentrations of cytokines such as HGF and CXCL9 in CD patients, and the ability of these cytokines to prognosticate a large proportion of CD and DCM patients multivariately, encourages further studies to clarify the diagnostic and prognostic potential of cytokines in such patients.
The human pathogen Clostridioides difficile has evolved into the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea. The bacterium is capable of spore formation, which even allows survival of antibiotic treatment. Although C. difficile features an anaerobic lifestyle, we determined a remarkably high oxygen tolerance of the laboratory reference strain 630Δerm. A mutation of a single nucleotide (single nucleotide polymorphism [SNP]) in the DNA sequence (A to G) of the gene encoding the regulatory protein PerR results in an amino acid substitution (Thr to Ala) in one of the helices of the helix-turn-helix DNA binding domain of this transcriptional repressor in C. difficile 630Δerm. PerR is a sensor protein for hydrogen peroxide and controls the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. We show that PerR of C. difficile 630Δerm has lost its ability to bind the promoter region of PerR-controlled genes. This results in a constitutive derepression of genes encoding oxidative stress proteins such as a rubrerythrin (rbr1) whose mRNA abundance under anaerobic conditions was increased by a factor of about 7 compared to its parental strain C. difficile 630. Rubrerythrin repression in strain 630Δerm could be restored by the introduction of PerR from strain 630. The permanent oxidative stress response of C. difficile 630Δerm observed here should be considered in physiological and pathophysiological investigations based on this widely used model strain.
IMPORTANCE The intestinal pathogen Clostridioides difficile is one of the major challenges in medical facilities nowadays. In order to better combat the bacterium, detailed knowledge of its physiology is mandatory. C. difficile strain 630Δerm was generated in a laboratory from the patient-isolated strain C. difficile 630 and represents a reference strain for many researchers in the field, serving as the basis for the construction of insertional gene knockout mutants. In our work, we demonstrate that this strain is characterized by an uncontrolled oxidative stress response as a result of a single-base-pair substitution in the sequence of a transcriptional regulator. C. difficile researchers working with model strain 630Δerm should be aware of this permanent stress response.
Vitamin B6 deficiency during pregnancy translates into a severe vitamin B6 deficiency (plasma levels decreased by 97%) in new-born rats. Further, hallmarks are increased (+89%) concentrations of homocysteine, gross changes in gene methylation and expression, and metabolic alterations including lipid metabolism. This study focuses on determining the effects of vitamin B6-deficiency on cardiolipin composition and oxidative phosphorylation in liver. For this purpose, hepatic cardiolipin composition was analyzed by means of LC/MS/MS, and mitochondrial oxygen consumption was determined by using a Clark-type electrode in a rat model of vitamin B6 deficiency. Liver mitochondria from new-born rats with pre-term vitamin B6 deficiency responded with substantial alterations in cardiolipin composition that include the following changes in the amounts of cardiolipin incorporated fatty acids: increase in C16, decrease in C18, decrease in saturated fatty acid, as well as increase in amount of oxidized cardiolipin species. These changes were accompanied by significantly decreased capacity of oxidative phosphorylation. In conclusion, vitamin B6 deficiency in new born rats induces massive alterations of cardiolipin composition and function of liver mitochondria. These findings support the importance of sufficient periconceptional supply of vitamin B6 to prevent vitamin B6 deficiency.
Impact statement
Vitamin B6 (VitB6) is an active co-enzyme for more than 150 enzymes and is required for a great diversity of biosynthesis and metabolic reactions. There is an increased need for VitB6 during pregnancy and sufficient supply of VitB6 is crucial for the prevention of cleft palate and neural tube defects. We show that liver mitochondria from new-born rats with pre-term VitB6 deficiency respond with substantial alterations in cardiolipin (CL) composition and in the amount of oxidized CL species. These changes are associated with a decrease in the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation. The results of this study support the significance of sufficient supply of VitB6 during pregnancy (and periconceptional) for diminishing the number of early abortions and minimizing malformation. The established link between VitB6 deficiency, CL composition, and mitochondrial respiration/energy production provides mechanistic insight as to how the VitB6 deficiency translates into the known pathophysiological and clinically relevant conditions.
Zusammenfassung
Im Rahmen immunologischer Erkrankungen, wie Autoimmun- oder inflammatorischer Erkrankungen, Erkrankungen des zentralen Nervensystems oder Krebserkrankungen spielen Peptidasen eine wichtige Rolle [1, 2]. Die Exopeptidasen Membran-Alanyl-Aminopeptidase N (APN/CD13) und Dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DP IV/CD26) sind essentiell für die Regulation vieler biologischer Prozesse, insbesondere für die Autoimmunität und die Inflammation [3-5]. Literaturdaten und Vorarbeiten verschiedener Arbeitsgruppen belegen immunmodulatorische Eigenschaften von Inhibitoren der enzymatischen Aktivität der APN. Sowohl in vitro als auch in verschiedenen Krankheitsmodellen der Maus in vivo, zeigten sich therapeutisch relevante immunsuppressive Effekte dieser Inhibitoren [7, 11]. Mechanistisch liegen diesen positiven Wirkungen unter anderem eine Hemmung der Produktion und Sekretion proinflammatorischer Zytokine, sowie die Verstärkung der Produktion und Sekretion immunsuppressiver Zytokine zu Grunde [5]. Die Inhibitoren scheinen auch einen immunmodulatorischen Einfluss auf den Wnt Signalweg zu haben, der als Signaltransduktionsweg wichtige Aufgaben in der Regulation von Zellmigration, Polarität, interzellulärer Kontakte und für die frühe Embryonalentwicklung übernimmt [47]. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde sowohl der Einfluss verschiedener Inhibitoren der APN als auch des genetischen CD13-Knockouts in Mäusen auf die Aktivierung verschiedener Mikrogliazellpopulationen und auf die Expression von Komponenten des Wnt Signalweges untersucht. In Abhängigkeit von der Aktivierung war sowohl eine gesteigerte Expression proinflammatorischer Zytokine, als auch eine Hemmung der Komponenten des Wnt Signalweges in BV2 Mikrogliazellen zu beobachten. In BV2 Mikrogliazellen konnten keine signifikanten Einflüsse durch die Inhibitoren A1.002 und IP10.C9 detektiert werden. Lediglich durch den CD13-Antikörper My 7 konnten immunsuppressive Effekte in aktivierten BV2 Mikrgoliazellen beobachtet werden. In CD13-Knockout Mäusen konnte eine signifikante Reduktion der Wnt 10b positiven Mikrogliazellen gezeigt werden. In der Zusammenschau aller Ergebnisse lassen sich regulatorische Zusammenhänge zwischen der Aktivität der Mikrogliazellen, sowie der APN und dem Wnt Signalweg aufzeigen. Daher erscheinen weiterführende Analysen in primären isolierten Mikrogliazellen sinnvoll, um die Bedeutung von Inhibitoren der APN in neuronalen Zellen zu ermitteln. Dabei spielen nicht nur die Inhibitoren selbst, sondern auch deren Inkubationsbedingungen im Verhältnis zur LPS-vermittelten Zellaktivierung eine entscheidende Rolle.
Survival, development, and function of cells depend on numerous signaling pathways or-
chestrating the response to external and internal stimuli. Besides the well-established signaling through reversible phosphorylation, the concept of specific, spatio-temporal redox modifi-
cations of protein cysteinyl and methionyl side chains that regulate the biological function of these proteins is supported by an overwhelming amount of data. Although the specific reduction of protein redox modifications has been studied intensively, the oxidation of protein side chains was thought to be a result of so-called ‘oxidative stress’. However, this term has been increasingly challenged, since signaling pathways depend on specific, spatio-temporal oxidation of target proteins, most likely catalyzed by specific enzymes. The discovery of MICAL (molecule interacting with CasL) proteins evinced
the first examples of specific oxidases in signal transduction in the redox regulation of cellular functions.As part of the semaphorin signaling pathway, MICAL proteins were characterized to stereospecifically oxidize methionyl residues in actin, thereby regulating actin deolymerization, a process important in neurogenesis and cell migration. This oxidation can be reversed by the specific methionine-R-sulfoxide eductase B1. Besides the regulation of actin dynamics, MICALs are involved in the regulation of cell proliferation and
apoptosis, and the production of hydrogen peroxide may qualify them as specific oxidases also for cysteinyl residues.
Vorhofflimmern (VHF) ist die häufigste Herzrhythmusstörung im Erwachsenenalter. In den kommenden Jahren und Jahrzehnten werden die Prävalenz und Inzidenz von Vorhofflimmern weiter zunehmen. Die VHF-assoziierten Pathomechanismen sind nicht vollständig geklärt. Derzeitige Therapieansätze sind oft nur zeitlich begrenzt wirksam, mit starken Nebenwirkungen behaftet und können aktuelle Beschwerden der Patienten zwar eindämmen, ein Fortschreiten der Krankheit aber nicht aufhalten. Daher ist es notwendig, weitere Untersuchungen auf Ebene der Zellregulation und Zellkommunikation zu fördern, um das Wissen über Entwicklung, Progression und Reversibilität von VHF-assoziierten Remodeling-Prozessen zu erweitern und neue therapeutische Interventionspunkte zu identifizieren.
VHF-induzierte atriale Remodeling-Prozesse werden maßgeblich und zum Teil ursächlich durch reversible Veränderungen der Protein-Phosphorylierung verursacht. In vorherigen Arbeiten des Labors konnten bereits im Rahmen von Phosphoproteom-Analysen Proteine in HL-1 Zellen detektiert werden, die nach Rapid Pacing (RP) auffällig differentiell reguliert waren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit erfolgte die Analyse und Verifizierung dieser Proteine nach kontinuierlichem und Intervall-RP von HL-1 Zellen auf mRNA- und Proteinebene. Der Vergleich der im HL-1-Modell erhaltenen Daten mit denen, die aus atrialem Gewebe von Patienten in SR und VHF gewonnen wurden, soll Rückschlüsse auf klinisch und therapeutisch potenziell relevante Signalwege und Pathomechanismen bei VHF geben. Es stellte sich heraus, dass RP keinen Einfluss auf die mRNA-Expression von DDR2, OBSCN, SGK223, MARK2 und eingeschränkt auf JPH2 und GPX1 in HL-1 Zellen hatte. Lediglich nach Intervall-RP war die mRNA-Menge von JPH2 erhöht und von GPX1 reduziert. Sowohl nach kontinuierlichem als auch nach Intervall-RP war die Genexpression der Proteine SNIP1 und SBK2 stark reduziert. Gleichzeitig stellte sich eine ebenso stark reduzierte SBK2 Proteinexpression sowohl in den HL-1 Zellen als auch im humanen Vorhofgewebe bei VHF dar. In der immunhistochemischen Untersuchung atrialer Gewebeschnitte präsentierte sich SBK2 im Zytoplasma, entlang der Zellmembran und vesikelartig im perinukleären Raum der humanen Kardiomyozyten. RP und VHF hatten keinen Einfluss auf die Gen- und Proteinexpression von MARK2 in den HL-1 Zellen und im humanen Vorhofgewebe. In der Untersuchung der Protein-Phosphorylierung von MARK2 an Thr208 ergaben sich allerdings Diskrepanzen zwischen den murinen und humanen Zellen. Mithilfe der Immunfluoreszenz wurde in den humanen Kardiomyozyten für MARK2 eine regelmäßige Anordnung in longitudinaler Ausrichtung und zwischen den Z-Linien nachgewiesen. Eine VHF-abhängige durch Phosphorylierung vermittelte subzelluläre Translokation von MARK2 konnte ausgeschlossen werden. Diese RP-assoziierten Veränderungen im Phosphoproteom sind am atrialen Remodeling, bei der Erhöhung des oxidativen Stresses und der Aktivierung des TGF-β- und NF-κB-Signalwegs involviert. Des Weiteren wird ein Zusammenhang zwischen MARK2 und dem Wnt-Signalweg vermutet.
In weiterführenden Arbeiten sollten Untersuchungen der spezifischen Effekte von Protein-Phosphorylierungen und der Protein-Protein-Interaktionen erfolgen. Da zu den kardialen Funktionen von SBK2 keine Daten vorliegen, könnten mithilfe des Knock-outs von SBK2 (Knock-out Maus oder CRISPR-Cas9 Knock-out in HL-1 Zellen) grundlegende Aussagen zu dessen Rolle im gesunden Herzen oder bei VHF erhalten werden.