Open Access

The G protein-coupled receptor proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) has been implicated in various aspects of cellular physiology including inflammation, obesity and cancer. In cancer, it usually acts as a driver of cancer progression in various tumor types by promoting invasion and metastasis in response to activation by serine proteinases. Recently, we discovered another mode through which PAR2 may enhance tumorigenesis: crosstalk with transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling to promote TGF-β1-induced cell migration/invasion and invasion-associated gene expression in ductal pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells. In this chapter, we review what is known about the cellular TGF-β responses and signaling pathways affected by PAR2 expression, the signaling activities of PAR2 required for promoting TGF-β signaling, and the potential molecular mechanism(s) that underlie(s) the TGF-β signaling–promoting effect. Since PAR2 is activated through various serine proteinases and biased agonists, it may couple TGF-β signaling to a diverse range of other physiological processes that may or may not predispose cells to cancer development such as local inflammation, systemic coagulation and pathogen infection.

Background: Recently, the expression of proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) has been shown to be essential for activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5)/SMAD-mediated signaling and cell migration by transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1. However, it is not known whether activation of non-SMAD TGF-β signaling (e.g., RAS–RAF–MEK–extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling) is required for cell migration and whether it is also dependent on PAR2. Methods: RNA interference was used to deplete cells of PAR2, followed by xCELLigence technology to measure cell migration, phospho-immunoblotting to assess ERK1/2 activation, and co-immunoprecipitation to detect a PAR2–ALK5 physical interaction. Results: Inhibition of ERK signaling with the MEK inhibitor U0126 blunted the ability of TGF-β1 to induce migration in pancreatic cancer Panc1 cells. ERK activation in response to PAR2 agonistic peptide (PAR2–AP) was strong and rapid, while it was moderate and delayed in response to TGF-β1. Basal and TGF-β1-dependent ERK, but not SMAD activation, was blocked by U0126 in Panc1 and other cell types indicating that ERK activation is downstream or independent of SMAD signaling. Moreover, cellular depletion of PAR2 in HaCaT cells strongly inhibited TGF-β1-induced ERK activation, while the biased PAR2 agonist GB88 at 10 and 100 µM potentiated TGF-β1-dependent ERK activation and cell migration. Finally, we provide evidence for a physical interaction between PAR2 and ALK5. Our data show that both PAR2–APand TGF-β1-induced cell migration depend on ERK activation, that PAR2 expression is crucial for TGF-β1-induced ERK activation, and that the functional cooperation of PAR2 and TGF-β1 involves a physical interaction between PAR2 and ALK5

Salivary glands provide secretory functions, including secretion of xenobiotics and among them drugs. However, there is no published information about protein abundance of drug transporters measured using reliable protein quantification methods. Therefore, mRNA expression and absolute protein content of clinically relevant ABC (n = 6) and SLC (n = 15) family member transporters in the human parotid gland, using the qRT-PCR and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC−MS/MS) method, were studied. The abundance of nearly all measured proteins ranged between 0.04 and 0.45 pmol/mg (OCT3 > MRP1 > PEPT2 > MRP4 > MATE1 > BCRP). mRNAs of ABCB1, ABCC2, ABCC3, SLC10A1, SLC10A2, SLC22A1, SLC22A5, SLC22A6, SLC22A7, SLC22A8, SLCO1A2, SLCO1B1, SLCO1B3 and SLCO2B1 were not detected. The present study provides, for the first time, information about the protein abundance of membrane transporters in the human parotid gland, which could further be used to define salivary bidirectional transport (absorption and secretion) mechanisms of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics.

Previous studies have reported the fundamental role of immunoregulatory proteins in the clinical phenotype and outcome of sepsis. This study investigated two functional single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing protein 3 (TIM-3), which has a negative stimulatory function in the T cell immune response. Methods: Patients with sepsis (n = 712) were prospectively enrolled from three intensive care units (ICUs) at the University Medical Center Goettingen since 2012. All patients were genotyped for the TIM-3 SNPs rs1036199 and rs10515746. The primary outcome was 28-day mortality. Disease severity and microbiological findings were secondary endpoints. Results: Kaplan–Meier survival analysis demonstrated a significantly lower 28-day mortality for TIM-3 rs1036199 AA homozygous patients compared to C-allele carriers (18% vs. 27%, p = 0.0099) and TIM-3 rs10515746 CC homozygous patients compared to A-allele carriers (18% vs. 26%, p = 0.0202). The TIM-3 rs1036199 AA genotype and rs10515746 CC genotype remained significant predictors for 28-day mortality in the multivariate Cox regression analysis after adjustment for relevant confounders (adjusted hazard ratios: 0.67 and 0.70). Additionally, patients carrying the rs1036199 AA genotype presented more Gram-positive and Staphylococcus epidermidis infections, and rs10515746 CC homozygotes presented more Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Conclusion: The studied TIM-3 genetic variants are associated with altered 28-day mortality and susceptibility to Gram-positive infections in sepsis.

Die Sicherheit und Wirksamkeit der Arzneimitteltherapie wird maßgeblich von Transportproteinen beeinflusst. Die zelluläre Lokalisation von Transportern hat hierbei wesentlichen Einfluss darauf, ob diese als funktionelle Aufnahme- oder Effluxtransporter fungieren. Für den menschlichen Darm ist die Lokalisation einiger Transporter noch unklar. Ein Beispiel hierfür ist der organic cation transporter (OCT1), welcher für die intestinale Aufnahme zahlreicher kationischer Arzneistoffe, wie beispielsweise Morphin verantwortlich gemacht wird. Bisher gibt es allerdings widersprüchliche Aussagen über die exakte Lokalisation dieses Transporters in der Zellmembran von Enterozyten. Folglich ist die tatsächliche Bedeutung dieses Proteins für die Absorption von Arzneistoffen bis heute ungeklärt. Daher war das Ziel dieser Arbeit die Expression, Lokalisation und Funktion von OCT1 in Enterozyten anhand verschiedener labortechnischer Methoden näher zu charakterisieren. Mittels Immunfluoreszenzfärbung wurde versucht die Lokalisation von OCT1 im Zellmodell zu bestimmen. Ebenfalls im Zellmodell erfolgte die Untersuchung des vektoriellen Transportes von Morphin mittels Transwellassay. Diese, sowie entsprechende Analysen vitalen intestinalen Gewebes in der Ussing-Kammer, wurden genutzt, um indirekt Rückschlüsse auf die Transporterlokalisation zu ziehen. Trotz eindeutiger und der Hypothese entsprechender Expression und Funktion in MDCKII-OCT1/P-gp-Zellen, konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit keine eindeutigen Ergebnisse bezüglich der Lokalisation von OCT1 in Caco-2-Zellen generiert werden. Caco-2-Zellen sollten als Zellmodell für Enterozyten, insbesondere hinsichtlich der Charakterisierung von OCT1, neu bewertet werden, da aktuellen Erkenntnissen entsprechend möglicherweise keine signifikante Expression von OCT1 in diesen Zellen vorliegt. Auch das genutzte OCT1-Modellsubstrat Morphin ist möglicherweise problematisch. Es ist darauf hinzuweisen, dass es sich bei den vorliegenden Daten aufgrund der geringen Versuchszahl nur um vorläufige Ergebnisse handeln kann, welche in zukünftigen Arbeiten verifiziert werden sollten. Zusammenfassend kann festgehalten werden, dass die vorliegende Arbeit zwar keine neuen Erkenntnisse bezüglich der Lokalisation von OCT1 in Enterozyten erbringen konnte, jedoch die Bedeutung eines kritischen Umgangs mit etablierten Methoden und deren Ergebnissen unterstreicht.