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Die zytostatische Behandlung mit Docetaxel ist die leitliniengerechte Therapie des fortgeschrittenen, kastrationsresistenten Prostatakarzinoms (PCa). Die Entwicklung von Resistenzen gegenüber Docetaxel bedeutet auf Grund fehlender Therapiealternativen häufig eine deutlich verschlechterte Prognose für den Patienten. In dieser Arbeit wurde das Hitzeschockprotein 27 (HSP27) als bedeutsamer Faktor für erhöhte Docetaxelresistenz in PCa-Zellen identifiziert. Eine hohe Expression von HSP27 korrelierte während der Docetaxelbehandlung mit einer geringeren Docetaxel-Sensitivität der Tumorzellen. Für die Vermittlung dieser Zytoprotektion war die dephosphorylierte Form des Proteins verantwortlich, während die Expression von phosphomimetischem HSP27 eine deutliche Reduktion des Zellwachstums zur Folge hatte. Die Inkubation mit Docetaxel resultierte in einer verstärkten Expression von HSP27 und einer raschen Phosphorylierung des Proteins. Auf die erhöhte HSP27-Phosphorylierung folgte anschließend eine stete Abnahme des phosphorylierten HSP27-Anteils an der weiterhin steigenden HSP27-Gesamtproteinmenge. HSP27 wird stimulusabhängig hauptsächlich von zwei Kinasen an drei für die Funktion ausschlaggebenden Serin-Resten phosphoryliert. Die Modulation der HSP27-Phosphorylierung durch Inhibition und Aktivierung weder von Proteinkinase D1 (PKD1), noch von Mitogen-aktivierter Proteinkinase (MAPK) p38 allein führte zu signifikant verändertem Tumorzellwachstum. Die simultane Aktivierung beider Kinasen jedoch resultierte in einer erheblich verringerten Zellzahl. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit demonstrieren, dass als Antwort auf Docetaxel-Exposition vermehrt HSP27 exprimiert wird, welches in seiner dephosphorylierten Form die Resistenz gegenüber der zytostatischen Wirkung von Docetaxel erhöht. Somit könnte die Aktivierung der für die HSP27-Phosphorylierung verantwortlichen Kinasen möglicherweise zur Sensibilisierung von Tumorzellen gegenüber dem Zytostatikum Docetaxel führen. Dies würde eine zusätzliche Therapieoption für die Behandlung des fortgeschrittenen, kastrationsresistenten PCa eröffnen.
Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is an adverse transfusion reaction and the major cause of transfusion-related mortality. The syndrome occurs within six hours after transfusion and is characterized by acute respiratory distress and the occurrence of a non-cardiogenic, bilateral lung edema. TRALI is almost entirely induced by leukocyte-reactive substances which are present in the blood product and get transferred to the recipient during transfusion. The majority of cases (~80%) is caused by leukocyte-reactive immunoglobulins and is accordingly classified as immune-mediated TRALI. The responsible antibodies are generated via alloimmunization and are directed against human leukocyte antigens of class I and II or human neutrophil alloantigens (HNA). Within the HNA class, HNA-3a antibodies have an exceptional clinical relevance as they are most frequently involved in severe and fatal TRALI cases. The high mortality was associated with their characteristic ability to induce a strong neutrophil aggregation response. The described clinical relevance of HNA-3a antibody-mediated TRALI motivates the screening for new strategies for preventive or acute pharmacologic intervention. Knowledge of the molecular pathomechanisms is a crucial prerequisite and thus, respective investigations are required. In order to achieve this goal, HNA-3a antibody-induced cytotoxicity and aggregation were assessed on the molecular level by usage of flow cytometry, the granulocyte agglutination test and by phosphoproteome analysis. The current study provides insight into molecular processes during HNA-3a antibody-induced neutrophil responses and is the first to assess neutrophils using global, gel-free phosphoproteome analyses. Accordingly, it is the first to provide neutrophil phosphoproteome data in the context of TRALI. Gel-free phosphoproteome analyses of primary neutrophils required the highly selective and sensitive phosphopeptide enrichment from stable and sufficiently large protein extracts. However, an appropriate workflow did not exist and was hence developed by sequential protocol optimization steps. The developed workflow was finally proven suitable for comparative gel-free phosphoproteomics when detecting the formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine-induced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling in a proof-of-principle experiment. The following single parameter analyses were conducted to investigate neutrophils for their responses to HNA-3a antibodies in absence and presence of proinflammatory priming conditions. Results revealed that the direct stimulation of neutrophils with HNA-3a antibodies will likely not cause the induction of cytotoxic effector functions. In contrast, neutrophils react predominantly by aggregation, a process which is potentially mediated by integrins and causes a secondary, subthreshold activation of solely ERK2. Accordingly, only the neutrophil aggregation response could also be enhanced by an appropriate priming. Taken together, the single parameter analyses proved neutrophil aggregation as the main pathomechanism in HNA-3a antibody-mediated TRALI and thus, the underlying signaling pathways were investigated by global, gel-free phosphoproteomics. The following phosphoproteome analyses indicated the induction of a biphasic signaling during 30 minutes of HNA-3a antibody treatment and signaling pathways of Rho family GTPases could be associated with the first and the second phase. Additionally, the involvement of ERK signaling was indicated in the second phase and this result corroborated thus the data of the previous single parameter analyses. The comprehensive analysis of the identified signaling pathways revealed Rho, Rac and Cdc42 as central regulators and the specific inhibition of Rho in the following validating experiments led very intriguingly to a significant enhancement of HNA-3a antibody-mediated neutrophil aggregation. Hence, this result indicated a potential inhibitory effect of HNA-3a antibodies on Rho activity. Therefore, Rho inhibition was suggested to occur in parallel to an adhesion-inducing signaling pathway and might hence be involved in the stabilization of neutrophil aggregates in HNA-3a antibody-induced TRALI. The results from this doctoral thesis contributed to the generation of a new pathogenesis model for HNA-3a antibody-mediated TRALI. In this model, neutrophils respond to direct HNA-3a antibody exposure predominantly by homotypic aggregation. These potentially very stable and primed aggregates accumulate in the lung and are susceptible to parallel, proinflammatory stimulation. Subsequently, this cascade leads to full neutrophil activation and finally to TRALI induction.
Reversible posttranslational modifications play an important role during the regulation of many central processes in bacterial cells. Protein phosphorylation, in particular, can influence signal transduction processes and thus enables a distinct reaction of the cell to different stress and environmental conditions. In the case of the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, protein phosphorylation is involved in the adaptation to changing conditions during colonisation of human hosts. For this reason, the investigation of phosphorylations in S. aureus allows a better understanding of pathophysiology and virulence of this organism. Apart from stable phosphorylations at the amino acids serine, threonine and tyrosine, insights into energy-rich phosphorylations, for instance at arginine residues, gain more and more scientific attention. For this reason, one purpose of this study was the investigation of incidence and physiological relevance of this protein modification at a global scale. Firstly, the analysis of this modification was methodically optimised resulting in the identification of eight arginine phosphorylations in wild type cells of S. aureus COL. Secondly, the deletion mutant ΔptpB missing the gene that codes for an arginine phosphatase, was analysed. The characterisation of PtpB in vitro proved its activity and specificity towards arginine phosphorylations. This enabled the global analysis of the phosphoproteome with a focus on arginine phosphorylations. In addition to the optimisation of the phosphopeptide enrichment as part of the sample preparation, the data analysis process was adapted to the special challenges of energy-rich phosphorylations. Here, classical database search was extended by spectral library based analyses. In addition, synthetic peptides allow the generation of high quality mass spectra and the verification of database based evaluation strategies to ensure the quality of the spectral library. Next, S. aureus COL was cultivated under various conditions and several subcellular fractions were analysed with the aim to cover a broad part of the proteome. The combination of the spectra of synthetic peptides, the spectra of non-phosphorylated peptides from extensive cultivation experiments and the spectra of enriched phosphopeptides rendered the construction of a spectral library possible. This contained 2,270 proteins out of which 392 were found to be phosphorylated. A comparison of the database based analysis with spectral library based analysis showed the advantages of the latter when comparing the reproducibility of biological replicates. Thereby a permanent issue in phosphoproteomics was investigated. Hence, spectral libraries were used for the analysis of the phosphoproteome of S. aureus under control and stress conditions. 215 arginine phosphosites were identified within the mutant under control conditions and 117 under oxidative stress conditions. Oxidative stress was chosen because phenotypic characterisation of the mutant revealed that the most distinct growth changes in comparison with the wild type occurred after oxidative stress. These phenotypic changes were quantitatively approached in the last part of this work. Total proteome quantification of the wild type and mutant under control and stress conditions revealed an influence of the ptpB deletion on amino acid metabolism, oxidative stress response and virulence. The quantification of phosphopeptides by means of a combination of spectral library with Census based analysis finally confirmed the observations made during total proteome quantification.
The present work provides new insight concerning histidine phosphorylation in proteins, which is an essential regulatory posttranslational modification. To study histidine phosphorylation, a newly developed NMR approach, the HNP experiment, is presented in this thesis. The HNP experiment provides specific experimental evidence of phosphorylated histidines in proteins. It allows for the determination of the regiochemistry of phosphohistidines on the basis of three individual peak patterns for distinguishing all three phosphohistidines i.e. 1- and 3-phosphohistidine and 1,3-diphosphohistidine. This novel NMR approach allows the investigation of histidine phosphorylation in proteins under physiological conditions without resorting to chemical shift comparisons, reference compounds, or radioactively labelled phosphate. In this thesis, histidine phosphorylation in the regulatory domains PRDI and PRDII of the Bacillus subtilis antiterminator protein GlcT was intensely studied. GlcT is a transcription factor, which regulates the phosphotransferase system (PTS) by modulating the expression level of PTS-enzymes (Enzyme I, HPr, Enzyme II) on a transcriptional level. Upon the phosphorylation of conserved histidines in PRDI and PRDII, the function of GlcT is regulated through its aggregation state. In this thesis, it is shown that histidines in both PRDs are primarily phosphorylated at their N(Epsilon-2), forming 3-phosphohistidine. In addition, we found, by newly optimized mass spectrometry conditions, that both PRDs are dominantly onefold phosphorylated. By using tandem mass spectrometry to study PRDI, we identified histidine 170, which is the second of two conserved histidines (His 111 and His 170), as the phosphorylation site. In this thesis, it is also shown through comprehensive mutational studies that both conserved histidines (His 218 and His 279) in PRDII can be individually phosphorylated. This is in good agreement with mass spectrometry results that indicated an additional twofold phosphorylation in PRDII. This can be explained as follows: an intra-domain phosphate transfer between both conserved histidines in PRDII might be involved in the phosphorylation reaction, finally leading to a mainly onefold phosphorylated PRDII at one of the two conserved histidines. This minor twofold phosphorylation has also been found in PRDI. However, the specific peak pattern in the HNP-spectra of PRDI strongly suggest that this additional phosphorylation originates from a 1,3-diphosphohistidine, most likely at histidine 170. Furthermore, for the first time the existence of 1,3-diphosphohistidine in a protein was found. We also show that the phosphorylation of PRDI can be achieved in the absence of Enzyme II which is in contrast to the literature. Shown by analytical gel filtration, the monomeric aggregation state of PRDI obtained upon Enzyme II-free phosphorylation is identical to the monomeric aggregation state which was proposed for the Enzyme II-dependent phosphorylation of GlcT. As shown in this thesis, the combined results of HNP-NMR, mass spectrometry and analytical gel filtration deepen our understanding of regulatory histidine phosphorylation in the individual PRDI and PRDII domains of the Bacillus sub- tilis GlcT. I anticipate that this approach will be applicable to study histidine phosphorylations in other phosphoproteins.
Posttranslationale Proteinmodifikationen beeinflussen Proteinaktivitäten und Signalwege innerhalb einer Zelle und haben somit vielfältige Auswirkungen auf den Stoffwechsel von Bakterien. Um die genauen Mechanismen besser verstehen zu können, wurde in dieser Arbeit das Phosphoproteom von Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 untersucht. Der Schwerpunkt lag dabei in der Entwicklung besserer Auswertestrategien und der damit einhergehenden verbesserten Identifizierung von Phosphoproteinen. Um dies zu bewerkstelligen, wurden die Proteinextrakte durch gelfreie und gelbasierte Methoden aufgetrennt. Die Auswertung der Experimente erfolgte zunächst durch klassische Proteinidentifizierung mit Hilfe von Proteindatenbanken. Zusätzlich wurden Spektrenbibliotheken von S. pneumoniae D39 aufgebaut und diese für eine bessere Proteinidentifizierung sowie Phosphoproteinidentifizierung genutzt. Anschließend wurden zur Quantifizierung des Phosphoproteoms dieses Pathogens verschiedene Quantifizierungsmethoden getestet und modifiziert. Hierbei wurde zum einen das Phosphoproteom einer Kinasedeletionsmutante von S. pneumoniae D39 über die Spotintensitäten von 2D Gelen mit dem Wildtyp verglichen. Zusätzlich wurden die Auswirkungen dieser Kinase auf das globale S. pneumoniae D39 Proteom mittels SILAC sowie der neu erstellten Spektrenbibliothek aufgezeigt. Eine weitere etablierte Quantifizierungsmethode für Phosphoproteine in der Arbeit war die Kombination von metabolischer Markierung und 2D Gelen. Die Veränderung des Phosphoproteoms wurde an dem industriell bedeutsamen Bakterium Bacillus pumilus anhand von oxidativem Stress aufgezeigt.
Numerous signalling pathways orchestrate the development, the functions, and the survival of cells, mostly in response to external stimuli. An overwhelming amount of data supports the concept of specific, spatio-temporal redox signalling pathways that affect the redox state of protein cysteinyl side chains and thus the biological function of these proteins. Glutaredoxins (Grxs) and thioredoxins (Trxs) catalyse reversible thiol-disulphide exchange reactions. The cytosolic Grx2 isoform Grx2c is essential for brain development and axonal outgrowth. A reversible dithiol-disulphide switch of CRMP2 has been identified as one of the major targets regulated by Grx2c. This CRMP2 redox switch is toggled in neuronal differentiation. Reduction of CRMP2 thiols induces profound conformational changes, modifying interactions and downstream elements of this redox switch. In [article I] and [manuscript V], we identified the Cys504 of CRMP2 to be the redox regulated residue. We used various in vitro assays with recombinant protein and molecular dynamics simulations to characterise the conformational change. The changes involve the solvent accessible surface area of at least one known phosphorylation site at the C-terminus of the protein. In [article III], we analysed the function of Grx2 and Trx1 in a model for perinatal asphyxia. Trx family proteins exhibit a very complex, cell-type and tissue specific expression pattern following hypoxia/ischemia and reoxygenation, especially Trx1 and Grx2. The results imply the clinical relevance for both proteins in perinatal asphyxia as well as many other neurological disorders. In agreement with the results presented in [articleI], Grx2 may be required for the re-establishment of neuronal integrity and connectivity. Cell shape, all forms of intracellular transport, and cell movement depend on the cytoskeleton, particularly on the fine tuned complex regulation of the dynamic re-arrangement of actin filaments and microtubules. In [article IV], we discuss the redox regulation of this dynamic cytoskeletal remodelling. Taking recent discoveries into account, we focus on redox signalling mechanisms, e.g. reversible thiol and methionyl switches. These switches are specifically controlled by enzymes such as Trx1 and Grx2c, for instance, and not the result of random modification by unspecific oxidants. Methionyl sulphoxidation of actin can be reversed by methionyl sulphoxide reductase (MsrA), promoting actin polymerisation. Human cells express two different Msr enzymes (MsrA and MsrB), that can reduce S- and R-methionyl sulphoxide, respectively. In the gram-positive Streptococcus pneumoniae, on the other hand, both Msr genes and thus enzymes were fused during evolution. In [article II], we characterised the surface-exposed thioredoxin family lipoproteins Etrx1 and 2 and regulators of this Msr (SpMsrAB). A loss of function of both Etrx proteins or SpMsrAB dramatically reduced pneumococcal virulence, enhanced the bacterial uptake by macrophages, and accelerated pneumococcal killing by H2O2 or free methionine sulphoxide. Identification and characterisation of components of this redox regulated system may contribute to the design of new antimicrobials. In [manuscript VI], we investigated the effects of Grx2c expression on cell morphology, migration, and invasion behaviour of cancer cells. Grx2c expressing cancer cells developed dramatic changes in phenotype, including alterations in cytoskeletal dynamics and significantly increased motility and invasiveness. We used quantitative proteomics and phopshoproteomic approaches to characterise the underlying mechanisms. Proteins and pathways regulating cytoskeletal dynamics, cell adhesion, and receptor-mediated signal transduction were detected to be specifically altered. We started a clinical pilot study with patients suffering from clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Grx2c was expressed with significantly higher frequency in ccRCC compared to healthy kidney tissue, associated with a strong trend for locally more advanced tumour stages and a clear tendency for a decreased cancer-specific survival, compared to patients without detectable Grx2c. These results were supported by data from "The Cancer Genome Atlas". In synopsis, the results presented and discussed in these articles and manuscripts, support the concept of specific redox signalling in different models and model organisms. They also demonstrate the importance of the specific redox control of signalling pathways that, in the case of errors or misinterpretations, contribute to pathophysiological alterations. The regulation of the CRMP2 redox switch by Grx2c, for instance, is physiologically essential for brain development, but might lead to cancer progression, if "switched on" in adult tissue. Identification of further interaction partners as well as the development of compounds modulating this redox switch and CRMP2s conformations, will be part of our future research.
Die Analyse bakterieller Phosphoproteome rückt durch die Einflussnahme von Phosphorylierungsereignissen im Virulenzgeschehen pathogener Mikroorganismen immer weiter in den Vordergrund. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit lag auf der globalen Analyse bakterieller Phosphoproteome unter Anwendung verschiedener Techniken der Proteomforschung. Ziel war es, einen möglichst umfassenden Überblick über das cytosolische Phosphoproteom zu gewinnen, die Dynamik der Protein-Phosphorylierungen unter verschiedenen physiologischen Bedingungen zu analysieren und daraus folgend Hinweise auf regulatorische Mechanismen zu erhalten. Im Zuge der Untersuchungen zum Phosphoproteom von Bacillus subtilis wurde das auf den phosphosensitiven Pro-Q® Diamond-Farbstoff basierende 2D-Gel-Färbeprotokoll optimiert und validiert. Ferner wurde dieses Protokoll erfolgreich für die Untersuchungen des Phosphoproteoms von Mycoplasma pneumoniae und Staphylococcus aureus eingesetzt. Durch die Etablierung einer Methode zur Phosphopeptidanreicherung konnte der Blick auf das Gesamtphosphoproteom von S. aureus komplementiert werden. Insgesamt war es dadurch möglich, 103 phosphorylierte Proteine und 68 verschiedene Phosphorylierungsstellen von S. aureus zu identifizieren, darunter z. B. den Virulenzregulator SarA, dessen Phosphorylierung einen Hinweis auf seine mögliche Regulation aufzeigt. Zusätzlich konnten die Phosphorylierungsergebnisse der Fruktose-1,6-Bisphosphataldolase erste Hinweise auf eine Regulation der Substratbindung liefern und einen Erklärungsansatz enstehen lassen, der die Wirkungslosigkeit einiger in der Literatur beschriebenen Enzyminhibitoren (potentielle antimikrobielle Wirkstoffe) in in vivo Studien darlegt. In einem auf der Pro-Q® Diamond-Färbung beruhenden Quantifizierungsansatz konnten 10 signifikante Veränderungen in der Signalintensität der phosphorylierten Proteine unter Glukosehunger, nitrosativem, oxidativem und osmotischem Stress festgestellt werden. Diese liefern erste Indizien auf durch Phosphorylierungsereignisse gesteuerte Regulationsmechanismen. Besonders die unter nitrosativen Stress neu auftretenden putativ phosphorylierten Proteinspots der Proteine FdaB (Fruktose-Bisphosphataldolase) und HchA (molekulares Chaperon Hsp31/Glyoxalase 3) lassen Spekulationen über neue Stoffwechselwege, wie z. B. einen Methylglyoxal detoxifizierenden Mechanismus, zu. Darüber hinaus konnten durch die Glukosehungerexperimente und die Spezifizierung der Phosphorylierungsstelle T537 der Pyruvatkinase von S. aureus ein Regulationsmechanismus vorgeschlagen werden, der das "Finetuning" des Energieladungszustandes der Zelle über einen Phosphorylierungs- und Dephosphorylierungsmechanismus beschreibt. Von weiterem Interesse war die Identifizierung von am Arginin phosphorylierten Peptiden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde hierfür das Phosphopeptid-anreicherungsprotokoll optimiert, so dass in Zusammenarbeit mit A. Elsholz (Inst. f. Mikrobiologie, EMAU Greifswald) die Identifizierung von phosphorylierten Argininresten der Argininkinase McsB und der ATPase ClpC in B. subtilis möglich wurde. Darüber hinaus wurde die Methode in globalen Untersuchungen einer Phosphatasemutante (∆ywlE, B. subtilis) angewandt. Mittels der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten massenspektrometrischen Analyse der angereicherten Peptide konnten 111 Arginin-Phosphorylierungsstellen identifiziert werden. Zur Verbesserung der Quantifizierung von phosphorylierten Proteinen in B. subtilis wurde ein Protokoll entwickelt, indem das Auftrennungspotential des 2D-Gels, die Identifizierung phosphorylierter Proteine anhand des Pro-Q® Diamond-Farbstoffs und die auf die metabolische Markierung beruhende Quantifizierung miteinander kombiniert wurde. Im Ergebnis konnte anhand dieser Methode eine bessere Reproduzierbarkeit und eine höhere Sensitivität bei geringeren Veränderungen im Vergleich zu dem Pro Q® Diamond basierten Quantifizierungsansatz erzielt werden.