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The focus of the first two articles was the engineering and application of enzymes for the conversion of the bio-based resources glycerol and its oxidation product glyceraldehyde for the production of the value added product glyceric acid. Article III focuses on the cloning, exploration and engineering of a polyol dehydrogenase, which later on was used as cofactor recycling system in order to produce ε-caprolactone from cyclohexanol as presented in arti-cle IV. The following paragraphs will give a short outline of each article. ARTICLE I: ASYMMETRIC SYNTHESIS OF D-GLYCERIC ACID BY AN ALDITOL OXIDASE AND DIRECTED EVOLUTION FOR ENHANCED OXIDATIVE ACTIVITY TOWARDS GLYCEROL. GERSTENBRUCH, S., WULF, H., MUßMANN, N., O’CONNELL, T., MAURER, K.-H. & BORNSCHEUER, U. T. (2012). Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 96, 1243-1252. The alditol oxidase of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) (AldO) was used to catalyze the oxida-tion of glycerol to glyceraldehyde and glyceric acid. The enantioselectivity for the FAD-de-pendent glycerol oxidation was elucidated and different strategies were used to enhance the substrate specificity towards glycerol. Directed evolution by error-prone PCR led to an AldO double mutant with 1.5-fold improved activity for glycerol. Further improvement of activity was achieved by combination of mutations, leading to a quadruple mutant with 2.4-fold higher specific activity towards glycerol compared to the wild-type enzyme. In small-scale biotransformation concentrations up to 2.0 g•l-1 D-glyceric acid could be reached using whole cells. Investi¬gation of the effects of the introduced mutations led to a further identification of es¬sential amino acids with respect to enzyme functionality and structural stability. ARTICLE II: KINETIC RESOLUTION OF GLYCERALDEHYDE USING AN ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE FROM DEINOCOCCUS GEOTHERMALIS DSM 11300 COMBINED WITH ELECTROCHEMICAL COFACTOR RECYCLING. WULF, H., PERZBORN, M., SIEVERS, G., SCHOLZ, F. & BORNSCHEUER, U. T. (2012). J. Mol. Catal. B Enzym. 74, 144-150. Two aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) from Escherichia coli BL21 and Deinococcus geother-malis were cloned, characterized and evaluated according to their applicability for a bio-catalysis setup with electrolytic cofactor recycling. Both ALDHs turned out to have a sim¬ilar substrate scope and favor short to medium chain aldehydes and both oxidize glyceralde¬hyde to D-glyceric acid. The ALDH variant of D. geothermalis shows higher specific activity towards glyceraldehyde and has an elevated optimum temperature compared to the BL21 enzyme. Due to the higher specific activity of the ALDH of D. geothermalis, this enzyme was used to conduct a kinetic resolution of glyceraldehyde with electrolytic NAD+ recycling at a glassy carbon foam electrode with ABTS as redox mediator yielding in 1.8 g•l-1 glyceric acid. ARTICLE III: PROTEIN ENGINEERING OF A THERMOSTABLE POLYOL DEHYDROGENASE. WULF, H.*, MALLIN, H.*, BORNSCHEUER U.T. (2012). Enzyme Microb. Technol. 51, 217-224 (*equally contributed). The new enzyme polyol dehydrogenase PDH-11300 from D. geothermalis was extensively characterized regarding its temperature optimum and thermostability. A peptide stretch responsible for substrate recognition from the PDH-11300 was substituted by this particular stretch of a homolog enzyme, the galactitol dehydrogenase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (PDH-158), resulting in a chimeric enzyme (PDH-loop). The substrate scopes were deter-mined and basically the chimeric enzyme represented the average of both wild-type en-zymes. A rather unexpected finding was the notably increased T5060, by 7°C to 55.3°C, and an increased specific activity against cyclohexanol. Finally, the cofactor specificity was suc¬cess-fully altered from NADH to NADPH by an Asp55Asn mutation, which is located at the NAD+ binding cleft, without influencing the catalytic properties of the dehydrogenase. ARTICLE IV: A SELF-SUFFICIENT BAEYER-VILLIGER BIOCATALYSIS SYSTEM FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF Ɛ-CAPROLACTONE FROM CYCLOHEXANOL. MALLIN, H. *, WULF, H. *, BORNSCHEUER U.T. (2013). Enzyme Microb. Technol., online, DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2013.01.007 (*equally contributed). The application of the engineered PDH-loopN mutant [1] (Article III) for the production of ε-caprolactone from cyclohexanol was investigated in a co-immobilization approach with the cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Biotransformation with solubilized enzymes led to an isolated yield of 55% pure ε-caprolactone with no residual cy-clohexanol to be detected. During the immobilization experiments a higher enzyme ratio in favor of the CHMO led to higher reaction velocities. Similarly, the addition of soluble fresh CHMO during reuse of co-immobilization batches significantly increased the activity identi-fying the CHMO as the bottleneck in this reaction setup.
In this thesis, all three BVMOs from Pseudomonas putida NCIMB10007, that were known to be responsible for the ability of this strain to degrade camphor since the 1950s were successfully made available as recombinant biocatalysts. While the genomic sequence of 2,5-DKCMO was available from the database, the genes encoding 3,6-DKCMO and OTEMO had to be identified using certain PCR-techniques first. All three enzymes were cloned into standard plasmids enabling convenient expression in E. coli facilitating the application of the enzymes in organic chemistry. Their synthetic potential was already reported during the 1990s, but at that time their efficient application was limited due to difficulties with respect to low production levels and insufficient purity and separation of enzyme fractions. These drawbacks are now overcome. Furthermore, biochemical characterization of the camphor-degrading BVMOs was performed including the substrate spectra of these enzymes. Thereby OTEMO turned out not only to have a broad substrate scope accepting mono- and bicyclic aliphatic and arylaliphatic ketones, but also to efficiently convert alpha/beta-unsaturated cycloalkanones due to the similarity of these compounds to OTEMOs natural substrate. Finally, the major limitation in the synthetic application of Type II BVMOs was addressed by searching a flavin-reductase suitable for coupling to these two-component oxygenases. Putative candidates from the respective P. putida strain were identified by the use of amino acid motifs conserved in other representatives of two-component systems. While these enzymes failed, flavin-reductase Fre from E. coli - that also contained the motifs - was shown to enhance the activity of the DKCMOs when applied as crude cell extract as well as pure enzyme. This finding represents a key step for future application of Type II BVMOs.
This thesis focuses on the establishment of biocatalytic cascade reactions for the production and detection of industrially relevant flavor and fragrance compounds for food and cosmetic products. To meet the consumer’s demand for those products to be natural, environmentally friendly biocatalytic manufacturing processes that operate GMO-free must be established. Thus, this thesis presents such pathways for the production of an industrially relevant long-chain hydroxy fatty acid and the important flavor and aroma compound raspberry ketone. Furthermore, a biosensor for aldehyde detection was implemented to facilitate screening for suitable biocatalysts that produce industrially relevant aldehydes that are widely applied in the flavor and fragrance industry.
This thesis investigates the biocatalytic synthesis of amines and amino alcohols. The applicability and economic feasibility of biocatalysis for chiral amine synthesis is reviewed and the findings were compared to established chemical processes using relevant process parameters (TON, TOF and STY). This review clearly showcases the potential of biocatalysis for the synthesis of chiral amines and provides a valuable guide for synthetic chemists who want to benefit from these new opportunities. Next, biocatalysis is applied for the synthesis of an amino alcohol with two stereocentres: A novel route for the synthesis of all four stereoisomers of 4-amino-1-phenylpentane-2-ol is presented. Enzymes were applied to install both stereocentres successively, which allowed the selective synthesis with high yields and optical purities. A small scale preparative asymmetric transamination yielded one amino alcohol stereoisomer selectively. The approach presented in this thesis provides a valuable option for the synthesis of this compound class as it is highly selective, step efficient and circumvents the need for protecting groups as well as transition-metal catalysis. The substrate scope of an (S)-selective amine transaminase (ATA) was altered in order to expand the applicability for amino alcohol synthesis. Protein engineering was conducted to enlarge the small binding pocket. Small scale preparative synthesis of the 1,2-amino alcohol (R)-phenylglycinol exemplifies the applicability of the evolved variants for the asymmetric synthesis of this compound. The designed variants expand the collection of ATAs that are suitable for the synthesis of amino alcohols with bulkier substituents. To deepen the understanding of ATAs further, a class III TA family wide analysis (which includes (S)-selective ATAs) is presented. After comparing the active site architectures and performing literature research amino acids were identified that correlate with the reaction- and substrate specificity of the enzymes within this family. This information is compiled in a sequence-function matrix, which allows the prediction of the main activity of biochemically uncharacterised enzymes from their sequence. These insights provide a better understanding of the activity determining residues in (S)-ATAs and class III TAs in general.
This thesis deals with the characterisation and engineering of new thermophilic PET hydrolases as potential candidates for an eco-friendly biocatalytic recycling approach for the upcycling or downcycling of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) on industrial scale. Furthermore, high-throughput screening methods are described that detect the products of PET hydrolysis. The high demand of PET in the packaging and textile industries with a global production of 82 million metric tons per year has significantly contributed to the global solid waste stream and environmental plastic pollution after its end-of-life. Although PET hydrolases have been identified in various microorganisms, only a handful of benchmark enzymes have been engineered for industrial applications. Therefore, the identification of new PET hydrolases from metagenomes or via protein engineering approaches, especially thermophilic PET hydrolases with optimal operating temperatures (i.e., increased thermostability and activity) near the glass transition temperature of the polymer PET, is a crucial step towards a bio-based circular plastic economy. Article I demonstrates that metagenome-derived thermophilic PET hydrolases can be significantly improved using different engineering approaches to achieve a similar activity level as the well-established leaf-branch-compost cutinase (LCC) F243I/D238C/S283C/Y127G variant (LCC ICCG). In Article II, thermostable variants of a mesophilic enzyme (PETase from Ideonella sakaiensis) were identified from a mutant library and characterised against PET substrates in various forms. Articles III and IV describe the application of high-throughput methods for the identification of novel PET hydrolases by directly assaying terephthalic acid (TPA), one of the monomeric building blocks of PET. Furthermore, Article IV describes the possibility of a one-pot conversion of the TPA-based aldehydes produced to their diamines as example for an open-loop upcycling method.
Die Ziele der vorliegenden Arbeit ergaben sich aus zwei Arbeitsschwerpunkten - dem Nachweis einer neuartigen prokaryotischen Phenoloxidase bei dem Bakterienisolat Azotobacter chroococcum SBUG 1484 und der Durchführung Phenoloxidase-katalysierter Biotransformationsreaktionen zur Derivatisierung von ortho- bzw. para-dihydroxylierten Verbindungen. Der zunächst unbekannte, eine neue Phenoloxidase bildende, Bakterienstamm sollte mittels morphologischer und physiologischer Tests sowie 16S-rDNA-Analysen einer Art zugeordnet werden. Da die Expression der Phenoloxidase nur unter bestimmten Bedingungen auftrat sollten die in Abhängigkeit von verschiedenen Kultivierungsparametern zahlreich auftretenden Zelldifferenzierungsprozesse des Stammes untersucht und eine standardisierte Kultivierungsmethode zur Erzielung hoher Phenoloxidase-Aktivitäten entwickelt werden. Die Untersuchung wesentlicher Eigenschaften der neubeschriebenen Phenoloxidase war für eine Zuordnung in die Gruppe der Multikupfer-Oxidasen und eine Prüfung der Eignung des Enzyms für biotechnologische Anwendungen eine unbedingte Voraussetzung. In Phenoloxidase-katalysierten Reaktionen sollte die Aminierung von einfach alkylsubstituierten Brenzkatechinen und Hydrochinonen sowie mehrfach-substituierten ein- bzw. zweikernigen dihydroxylierten Aromaten mit aliphatischen sowie alicyclischen Amindonoren untersucht werden. Im Mittelpunkt der Betrachtungen standen dabei die Aufklärung von Reaktionsmechanismen bei homo- und heteromolekularen Kopplungsreaktionen sowie die Prüfung des Einflusses verschiedener Reaktionsparameter (u.a. Hydroxylierungspositionen der Enzymsubstrate, Substituenten, Eduktkonzentrationen, Katalysatoren, pH-Werte der Reaktionssysteme, Lösungsmittel) auf die Nebenreaktionen und Ausbeuten der anvisierten Zielverbindungen (sekundäre Amine). Eine strukturchemische Analyse der Syntheseprodukte war dazu unerlässlich.
Within this thesis the protein engineering, immobilization and application of enzymes in organic synthesis were studied in order to enhance the productivity of diverse biotransformations. Article I is a review about Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMO) and provides a detailed overview of the most recent advantages in the application of that enzyme class in biocatalysis. Protein engineering of a former uncharacterized polyol-dehydrogenase (PDH) identified in the mesothermophilic bacterium Deinococcus geothermalis 11300 is described in Article II. Article III covers the combination of one PDH mutant with a BVMO in a closed-loop cascade reaction, thus enabling direct oxidation of cyclohexanol to ε-caprolactone with an internal cofactor recycling of NADP(H). Article IV and Article V report a process optimization for transamination reactions due to a newly developed immobilization protocol for five (S)- and (R)-selective aminotransferases (ATA) on chitosan support. Furthermore, the immobilized ATAs were applied in asymmetric amine synthesis. In Article VI, an ATA immobilized on chitosan, an encapsulated BVMO whole cell catalyst and a commercially available immobilized lipase were applied in a traditional fixed-bed (FBR) or stirred-tank reactor (STR), and were compared to a novel reactor design (SpinChem, SCR) for heterogeneous biocatalysis.
Unter promiskuitiver Acyltransferase-Aktivität versteht man die Eigenschaft bestimmter Hydrolasen, in wässriger Lösung bevorzugt Acyltransfer statt Hydrolyse zu katalysieren. Bis vor Kurzem waren nur wenige promiskuitive Acyltransferasen literaturbekannt. Dies führte zu der allgemeinen Annahme, dass diese Aktivität ein seltenes Phänomen in Hydrolasen ist. Diese Arbeit zeigt jedoch, dass promiskuitive Acyltransferase-Aktivität in der Familie der bakteriellen hormonsensitiven Lipasen und Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII weit verbreitet ist. Detaillierte Struktur-Funktions-Analysen ermöglichen die sequenzbasierte Vorhersage und Optimierung der Acyltransferase-Aktivität in beiden Enzymfamilien. Insbesondere die Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII überschreiten die Grenzen des bisher für möglich Gehaltenen, indem sie gute Enantioselektivität bei der kinetischen Racematspaltung sekundärer Alkohole zeigen und darüber hinaus die irreversible Bildung von Amiden und Carbamaten in Wasser katalysieren können. Die biokatalytische Acylierung von Zuckern in Wasser galt lange Zeit als unerreichtes Ziel der Biokatalyse. In dieser Arbeit wurde jedoch gezeigt, dass natürlich vorkommende und modifizierte Carboxylesterasen der Familie VIII die regioselektive Acetylierung von Glucose, Maltose und Maltotriose in Wasser mit hoher Effizienz katalysieren können.
Promiscuous acyltransferases enable transesterification reactions in bulk water by preferentially catalyzing acyl transfer over hydrolysis. Until recently, only a small number of promiscuous acyltransferases have been described in the literature, exhibiting several limitations in terms of acyltransferase efficiency and applicability. This work focuses on the discovery of novel promiscuous acyltransferases and the engineering of promiscuous acyltransferases via rational design. Several promiscuous acyltransferases in the bacterial hormone-sensitive lipase family and family VIII carboxylesterases have been identified, demonstrating that promiscuous acyltransferase activity is not a rare phenomenon. Moreover, the efficiency and applicability of the enzymes could be improved via protein engineering in terms of acyltransferase activity, enantioselectivity, and substrate scope.
In this work, the discovery, expression and characterization of new eukaryotic Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) from yeasts has been shown. A rational design of one of these enzymes led to the identification of key residues to alter the sulfoxidation activity of this group of enzymes. Additionally, in another rational design approach, the cofactor specificity of the BVMO cyclohexanone monooxygenase from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus could be substantially altered to accept the much cheaper and therefore industrially more relevant cofactor NADH.