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In vitro and in vivo analyses of mono- and mixed-species biofilms formed by microbial pathogens
(2022)
Microbial biofilms can be defined as multicellular clusters of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular matrix (ECM), which is primarily composed of polymeric biomolecules. Biofilms represent one of the most severe burdens in both industry and healthcare worldwide, causing billions of dollars of treatment costs annually because biofilms are inherently difficult to prevent, treat, and eradicate. In health care settings, patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, or patients with medical implants are highly susceptible to biofilm infections. Once a biofilm is formed, it is almost impossible to quantitatively eradicate it by mechanical, enzymatical, chemical, or antimicrobial treatment. Often the only remaining option to fully eradicate the biofilm is removing of the infected implant or body part. The primary reasons for the inherent resistance of biofilms against all forms of antimicrobial treatment are (I) a reduced metabolic activity of biofilm-embedded cells climaxing in the presence of metabolic inactive persister cells, as well as (II) the protective nature of the biofilm matrix acting as a (diffusion) barrier against antimicrobials and the host immune system. Consequently, there is an urgent need to better understand microbial biofilms from a structural and (patho-) physiological point of view in order to be able to develop new treatment strategies.
Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate fundamental physiological properties of different clinically relevant single and multi-species biofilms, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the effectiveness of a novel treatment strategy using cold atmospheric pressure plasma was evaluated in vitro to treat biofilms of the pathogenic fungus C. albicans.
In article I, the intracellular and ECM protein inventory of Staphylococcus aureus during in vitro biofilm growth in a flow reactor was analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis combined with metabolic footprint analysis. This analysis showed that anaerobiosis within biofilms releases organic acids lowering the ECM pH. This, in turn, leads to protonation of alkaline proteins – mostly ribosomal proteins originating from cell lysis as well as actively secreted virulence factors – resulting in a positive net charge of these proteins. As a consequence, these proteins accumulate within the ECM and form an electrostatic network with negatively charged cell surfaces, eDNA, and metabolites contributing to the overall biofilm stability.
In article II, the in vivo metaproteome of the multi-species biofilm community in cystic fibrosis sputum was investigated. To this end, an innovative protocol was developed allowing the enrichment of microbial cells, the extraction of proteins from a small amount of cystic fibrosis sputum, and subsequent metaproteome analysis. This protocol also allows 16S sequencing, metabolic footprint analysis, and microscopy of the same sample to complement the metaproteome data. Applying this protocol, we were able to significantly enhance microbial protein coverage providing first insights into important physiological pathways during CF lung infection. A key finding was that the arginine deaminase pathway as well as microbial proteases play a so far underappreciated role in CF pathophysiology.
In articles III and IV, a novel treatment strategy for biofilms formed by the important fungal pathogen Candida albicans was evaluated in vitro. Biofilms were treated with two different sources of nonthermal plasma (with the Nonthermal Plasma Jet “kINPen09” as well as with the Microwave-induced plasma torch “MiniMIP”) and the effect on growth, survival, and viability was assessed by counting colony-forming units (CFU), by cell proliferation assays, as well as by live/dead staining combined with fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, (CLSM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These tests revealed that biofilms were effectively inactivated mostly on the bottom side of biofilms, indicating a great potential of these two plasma sources to fight biofilms.
The here presented dissertation investigated the molecular mechanisms, by which the food industry model bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens and Listeria monocytogenes, grown either as planktonic cultures, were inhibited by plasma treated water (PTW) produced by a microwave-induced plasma source (MidiPLexc). As a starting point, optimal operating parameters were determined with 5 standard liters per minutes(slm)compressed air during the treatment of 10 ml deionized water within a treatment time of up to 15 min (pre-treatment time). Treatment times of 1, 3 and 5 min were selected (post-treatment time). In addition to physical parameters, i.e. temperature measurements at different spots at the plasma source during the production of the PTW, the chemical composition of PTW was determined by pH measurements, chronoamperometry (determination of the H2O2 concentration), ion chromatography (determination of the NO2-, NO3- and ONOO- concentrations) and mass spectrometry (qualitative determination of the molecules). In addition, concentration changes of reactive species over a period of 3 h indicated a decrease of the NO2- concentration as well as an increase of the NO3- and ONOO- concentration in the PTW. Microbiological assays, i.e. quantification of colony-forming units (CFU), fluorescence and XTT assays, revealed a significant reduction of the proliferation ability of the cells, membrane damages and metabolic activity have been demonstrated for planktonic cultures as well as mono- and multispecies biofilms. PTW effects on biofilm structures were investigated using microscopic methods such as fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as physical methods such as contact angle measurements. Significant changes in the biofilm structure have been shown, which indicate an ablation of the biofilm mass from top to bottom by approximately 2/3 of the biofilm mass and a destruction of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by the reactive species within the PTW. Subsequently, fresh-cut lettuce has been treated with PTW produced by up-scaled plasma sources. Apart from qualitative parameters of the lettuce after PTW treatment such as texture and color, the concentration of PTW reactive species have been determined. These experiments showed that the composition of the reactive species were slightly different from that of the laboratory-scaled plasma source MidiPLexc. Notably, the PTW treatment did not cause significant changes in texture and color of the fresh-cut lettuce. Finally, a synergistic effect of PTW treatment followed by plasma-processed air (PPA) drying was demonstrated application-specific.
Lyssavirus Matrixproteine (M) sind essentielle Komponenten im Virus-Assembly. Zusätzliche Virus RNA-Synthese regulierende und wirtszellmanipulierende Funktionen machen das M Protein zu einem zentralen Faktor der wirtszellabhängigen Virusreplikation und Pathogenese im infizierten Organismus. Damit könnte das M Protein einen wesentlichen Faktor bei der Anpassung von Lyssaviren an bestimmte Wirtsspezies darstellen und als Pathogenitätsdeterminante die spezifische Virulenz unterschiedlicher Lyssavirus Isolate begründen. Inwieweit Lyssavirus M Proteine sich tatsächlich in grundlegenden Funktionen der Virusreplikation und Wirtszellmanipulation unterscheiden, ist bisher nur unzureichend geklärt. Hier wurden M Proteine aus einem attenuierten Rabies Virus Stamm (RABV M) und aus einem fledermausassoziierten Lyssavirus (Europäische Fledermaus Lyssavirus Typ 1; EBLV 1 M) hinsichtlich funktioneller Unterschiede im Virus-Assembly und ihrer intrazellulären Lokalisation in virusinfizierten Zellen verglichen. Zusätzlich wurde durch die gezielte Insertion von Mutationen in das RABV M Protein ein stark attenuiertes RABV generiert, das eine wichtige Grundlage für die weitere Erforschung M abhängiger Mechanismen der Pathogenese und Viruseliminierung aus dem zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS) darstellt. Tatsächlich wurden mit chimären RABV M und EBLV 1 M exprimierenden Viren M abhängige Unterschiede in der Virusmorphogenese bestätigt. Eine RABV M abhängige Akkumulierung von Viruspartikel-ähnlichen Strukturen im rauen Endoplasmatischen Retikulum (rER) wurde mit der Kombination unterschiedlicher RABV und EBLV 1 M Sequenzen auf fünf C terminale Aminosäuren an den Positionen 187, 190, 192, 196 und 197 eingegrenzt. Mit der Identifizierung dieser Positionen konnte postulierte werden, dass es sich bei den beobachteten ultrastrukturellen Unterschieden nicht um Virusspezies sondern um Isolat-spezifische Unterschiede handelt, die möglicherweise einen Einfluss auf in vivo Virusreplikation und Pathogenese haben. Die vergleichende fluoreszenzmikroskopische Analyse infizierter Zellen zeigte, dass EBLV 1 M Protein im Gegensatz zum RABV M Protein an Membranen des Golgi-Apparates akkumulierte. Im Gegensatz zur Akkumulierung von Viruspartikel-ähnlichen Strukturen im rER konnte die EBLV 1 M spezifische Golgi-Apparat Lokalisation nicht auf einzelne Bereiche des M Proteins eingegrenzt werden, weshalb davon ausgegangen werden muss, dass hier die Integrität des gesamten EBLV 1 M Proteins notwendig ist. Erstmals wurden Lyssavirus M Proteine in viralen Einschlusskörpern und Zellkernen infizierter Zellen nachgewiesen. Während die Präsenz in den Einschlusskörpern ein wichtiges Element bei der Erforschung RNA-Synthese regulativer M Funktionen darstellt, können mit dem Nachweis von Lyssavirus M Proteinen im Zellkern wirtszellmanipulierende Funktionen auf nukleärer Ebene postuliert werden. Neben dem Nachweis der Proteine im Nukleus wurde mit fluoreszenzmarkiertem M Protein gezeigt, dass die Kernmembran eine Diffusionsbarriere für das M Protein darstellt und dass ein aktiver Transport in den Zellkern stattfinden muss. Zusammenfassend werden mit dieser Arbeit wichtige Erkenntnisse zu Unterschieden und Gemeinsamkeiten von Lyssavirus M Proteinen bezüglich Virusmorphogenese und wirtszellmanipulierender M Funktionen vorgelegt, die das aktuelle Verständnis der Lyssavirus Replikation vertiefen und weiterführende Arbeiten zu molekularen Mechanismen der Virusreplikation und Pathogenese ermöglichen.