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Most animals live solitarily, but for some species the benefits of group living outweigh the costs and social communities have evolved. Truly social societies are characterized by cooperation in tasks like foraging, predator defense and brood care. In the most extreme cases, non-reproducing individuals act as helpers and provision offspring of reproducing individuals at the cost of their own reproductive success. This alloparental care is attributed to kin selection that provides the helpers with inclusive fitness benefits. However, how reproductive role is determined and in which ways virgin helpers in a group benefit the community is not always well understood.
Spiders are known to be generalist hunters, which in many cases do not shy away from cannibalism. Thus, most spiders live solitarily. However, in a few species a permanently social lifestyle has evolved in which individuals live together throughout their life, providing an intriguing case of social evolution. These spider communities are characterized by lack of premating dispersal leading to extreme inbreeding, by reproductive skew, in which only a proportion of females reproduce and by cooperative breeding of the reproducing females. It has been assumed that the large proportion of virgin females act as helpers not only in foraging and web maintenance but also during brood care. In the social spider Stegodyphus dumicola brood care involves the intensive task of regurgitation feeding, at which mothers regurgitate their own liquefied body tissue. At the end of brood care, the offspring sucks the mothers dry during matriphagy, leading to the death of brood caring females and a semelparous lifestyle. In the closely related solitarily breeding Stegodyphus lineatus virgin females do not provide brood care. The ability of virgin females in S. dumicola to care for offspring would thus depict an adaptation to sociality and cooperative breeding. I therefore aimed to clarify the role and significance of virgin females in colonies of social spiders and furthermore investigated a possible mechanism of how reproductive role within a colony is determined.
I investigated whether there is differential task participation in a non-reproductive task and the task of brood care among reproducing mothers and virgin females (helpers) in Stegodyphus dumicola. The study provides explicit evidence that brood care – including egg sac care, regurgitation feeding and matriphagy – is performed by mothers as well as by virgin helpers. Virgin females in a colony can thus rightfully be termed allomothers. However, the task participation differed between the reproductive states. While mothers engaged more often in brood care, virgin females were more active in foraging. However, the active provisioning of offspring by the virgin females decreases the motherly workload as is suggested by the extended brood care period in comparison to solitary breeders. The observations on virgin allomaternal care are supported by histological studies on the midgut tissue of brood caring females, which revealed that mothers and virgin helpers undergo comparable morphological changes in preparation of regurgitation feeding. The changes in virgin females correlate to ovarian development that might depict an internal maturation process which sets virgin females in the right state to provide care. The morphological changes in mothers and virgin helpers of S. dumicola are less comprehensive than in the solitarily breeding S. lineatus mothers. This indicates that cooperatively caring females are able to save on their resources, provision offspring for longer and thus are probably able to increase survival of the brood by an extended care period. A surprising consequence of cooperative brood care is the ability of mothers to produce a second viable egg sac, even when the first brood is successful. Mothers of the cooperative breeding S. dumicola can thus depart from the strictly semelparous lifestyle and instead invest part of their resources in a second clutch. This finding identified a new way of how cooperative breeding enhances breeding success of reproducers and thus inclusive fitness for helpers as well, thus adding to the benefits of allomaternal care.
Virgin females did not store significantly lower amounts of lipids in their midgut tissue than mothers, raising the question of how much reproductive role of females is determined by competition for resources during growth, as often assumed. Another possible determinant of female reproductive skew is the characteristic male scarcity in spider colonies, with only about 12 percent of spiders being male. Males are assumed to mature early within a few days and die early, thus leaving late maturing females unmated due to lack of mating partners. However, my studies provided evidence that male maturation is more skewed than expected and males might survive several months. Subadult females did not accelerate molting when an adult male was present, which could further indicate, that male presence is not a limiting factor on reproduction in males. Furthermore, males are able copulate with up to 16 females and did not show e preference for large females during mating trials. Males are thus able to fertilize all females, provided all females mature in time. I therefore suggest, that male scarcity is not major determinant of reproductive skew in females, especially in small and middle-sized colonies in which female maturation might only be moderately skewed.
My studies were able to demonstrate the meaning of the large proportion of unmated females in a colony of the social spider S. dumicola. Virgin helpers support mothers during brood care and thus do not only enhance the brood care period but facilitate mothers to produce multiple clutches. Virgin females are able to care as they undergo similar morphological changes as mothers’ do. This seems to be facilitated by an internal maturation process, indicated by ovarian development and oviposition by virgin females, both of which has never been observed in virgins of the subsocial species. How reproductive role is determined remains unclear, but I was able to exclude male scarcity as a major factor influencing reproductive skew.
Dwarf spiders (Linyphiidae, Erigoninae) are especially suitable for sexual selection research as many of them exhibit sexual dimorphism, with males possessing modified prosomata. In those species that have been investigated in detail the modified structures are equipped with a glandular tissue that produces secretions, which the females contact and take up during courtship/copulation. The time of secretion release, and refilling of the reservoirs was analysed on an ultrastructural level in male Oedothorax retusus. The results suggest that the main function of the secretions is gustatorial courtship and not the emission of volatile pheromones for mate attraction. Mating decisions and reproductive success are influenced by secondary sexual traits that evolved under sexual selection. However, an individual´s nutritional status is also important for mate choice. Since spiders are regularly exposed to limited prey availability, adult feeding status can be considered an important component of spider mating behaviour. In order to test for the effects of dietary restriction, females of the closely related species O. retusus and O. apicatus were subject to a short period of food shortage. The effects of low- (LD) vs. high-diet (HD) treatment on courtship, mating probability and behaviour, and reproduction were analysed. We found that short phases of diet restriction as adults have a high impact on copulation and reproduction in the two dwarf spider species. Whenever females mate with more than one male, and sperm is stored prior to fertilization, males may suffer from sperm competition. Mating plugs that block the female genital openings after mating are a male strategy to avoid sperm competition. Although mating plugs occur in many species, their function and origin has hardly been investigated. O. retusus males transfer amorphous material onto the female genitalia during mating. We investigated the location of plug production using x-ray microtomography (μCT) as well as light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Furthermore, we asked whether males are limited in the production of the amorphous plug material in successive matings. The plug material is produced in a gland inside the male pedipalp and stored close to the blind end of the sperm storage compartment. The size of the first plug a male produced significantly influenced the size of subsequent plugs. Obviously, males do not possess unlimited amounts of plug material in a certain period, which may severely limit their ability to secure paternity through subsequent mating plugs. Even though mating plugs seem to be an obvious means to secure paternity, their potential in securing paternity depends on their mechanical efficacy and persistence. Consequently, the influence of the size of the plug material (mating duration as a proxy) and the age of the mating plug (time interval between successive copulations) on its efficacy was investigated. Small and fresh plugs were least effective, whereas large plugs were highly effective. We were able to show that mating plugs in O. retusus are a powerful mechanical safeguard whose efficacy varies with plug size and age. Genitalia in animals with internal fertilization are complex, species-specific, and underlie rapid evolution. In spiders, male and female genitalia are paired, and have to interact during mating, which results in an even higher complexity. Pedipalps (transformed pair of legs) in male spiders are used as secondary sperm transfer organs that are not directly connected to the gonads. Due to the high complexity of male pedipalps, it has been taken for granted that pedipalps are side specific and cannot be used flexibly into either female copulatory opening. We investigated potential flexible pedipalp use in O. retusus. Our findings demonstrate a flexible insertion mode in a dwarf spider with complex pedipalps but relatively simple female genitalia. Our findings corroborate sexual selection as the selective regime for the evolution of complex and diverse genitalia. The results of this thesis show how complex sexual selection acts in the dwarf spiders O. retusus and O. apicatus. It shapes the evolution of male and female genitalia, affects mate choice (pre- and postcopulatory), mating behaviour, and influences mating success and reproduction. All these factors and traits affect an individual´s evolutionary fitness, and their interactions help to understand how sexual selection acts.