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Hintergrundinformationen: Bakterien gehören zu den ältesten Lebensformen und sind ein elementarer Bestandteil aller ökologischen Lebensräume auf der Erde. Der Mensch als Holobiont ist ein eigenständiges Ökosystem mit einer Vielzahl von ökologischen Nischen und einer großen bakteriellen Vielfalt. Durch innere oder äußere Einflüsse kann es zu Veränderungen der Umweltbedingungen kommen, die eine veränderte Zusammensetzung des Mikrobioms zur Folge haben. Eine solche Dysbiose wirkt sich auf den Gesundheitszustand des Menschen aus und kann zu schweren Krankheiten führen. Das orale Mikrobiom gehört mit zu den komplexesten Mikrobiomen des Menschen. Es bildet eine natürliche Barriere gegen Krankheitserreger und beugt somit u.a. lokalen Krankheiten wie Karies oder Parodontitis vor. Die Metaproteomik ermöglicht es, die exprimierten Proteine des Mikrobioms und deren Interaktion mit dem Wirt zu untersuchen. Diese Technologie überwindet somit die Beschränkung auf Laborkulturen und ermöglicht die Untersuchung des Mikrobioms direkt in seinem natürlichen Lebensraum. Die Metaproteomik bietet eine Reihe von Instrumenten zur Vertiefung des Verständnisses des oralen Mikrobioms hinsichtlich des Gesundheitszustandes des Menschen.
Ziele: Ein Ziel dieser Dissertation war es einen Arbeitsablauf für die Durchführung von Metaproteomstudien des oralen Mikrobioms zu erarbeiten, beginnend bei der Probensammlung über die Präparation der Proben für die Massenspektrometrie bis hin zur bioinformatischen Auswertung. Diesen Arbeitsablauf galt es für das Mikrobiom des Speichels sowie für die Biofilme auf der Zunge und des supragingivalen Plaques zu etablieren bzw. zu adaptieren. Darauf aufbauend wurden Metaproteomstudien durchgeführt, um die drei Mikrobiome bei gesunden Probanden hinsichtlich ihrer exprimierten Proteine, deren metabolischer Bedeutung und Interaktionen mit dem Wirt sowie deren taxonomische Zuordnung zu studieren.
Studiendesign: Die Dissertation umfasst drei Studien mit drei unterschiedlichen Kohorten. Allen Studien ist gemein, dass die Kohorten sich aus oral gesunden Probanden im Alter von 20-30 Jahren zusammensetzten.
In der ersten Studie verglichen wir die Salivette® sowie den Paraffinkaugummi anhand von fünf Probanden, um die effektivste Methode zur Sammlung von Speichel für Metaproteomstudien zu identifizieren.
In der zweiten Studie wurden die Mikrobiome von Speichel und Zunge anhand von 24 Probanden miteinander verglichen und dafür eine Auswertestrategie entwickelt, um der Komplexität dieser Metaproteomstudie gerecht zu werden.
Im Rahmen unserer dritten randomisierten Einzelblindstudie, die auf einem Cross-over-Design basierte, erhielten 16 Probanden vier unterschiedliche lokale Behandlungsschemata, um deren Auswirkung auf das Plaque-Mikrobiom zu untersuchen. Die Behandlungen bestanden aus zwei Lutschtabletten, die Bestandteile des Lactoperoxidase-Systems in unterschiedlichen Konzentrationen enthielten, einer Lutschtablette mit einem Placebo-Wirkstoff sowie Listerine® Total Care™ Mundspülung als Positivkontrolle.
Alle Proben wurden, basierend auf einem Bottom-Up-Ansatz, unter Verwendung von nano LC-MS/MS Massenspektrometern in einer datenabhängigen Messstrategie (DDA, data- dependant acquisition mode) vermessen. Die bioinformatische Auswertung erfolgte für die erste Studie mit Hilfe der Proteome Discoverer Software. Für die Studien zwei und drei wurde die Trans-Proteomic Pipeline eingesetzt. Die taxonomische sowie funktionelle Zuordnung der identifizierten Proteine erfolgte für alle Studien anhand der Prophane Software.
Ergebnisse:
Für den Paraffinkaugummi konnten wir mit 1.005 bakteriellen Metaproteinen dreimal so viele Metaproteine identifizieren im Vergleich zur Salivette® mit 313 Metaproteinen. 76,5 % der Metaproteine der Salivette® wurden ebenfalls mit dem Paraffinkaugummi gefunden. Insgesamt wurden 38 Genera und 90 Spezies identifiziert, wovon 13 Genera und 44 Spezies nur mit dem Paraffinkaugummi identifiziert werden konnten. Die größte funktionelle Diversität wurde ebenfalls mit dem Paraffinkaugummi detektiert.
Das Metaproteom des Speichel- und Zungen-Mikrobioms basiert auf 3.969 bakteriellen Metaproteinen sowie 1.857 humanen Proteinen. Die Anzahl der nur für das Zungen-Mikrobiom identifizierten Metaproteine, war doppelt so hoch, im Vergleich zum Speichel.
Die Metaproteine konnten 107 Genera sowie 7 Phyla zugeordnet werden. Funktionell wurden für das Speichel-Mikrobiom signifikant höhere Metaproteinabundanzen für die Zellmotilität gefunden. Beim Zungen-Mikrobiom hingegen wiesen die Metaproteine der Biosynthese von sekundären Metaboliten, Signaltransduktion oder der Replikation höhere Abundanzen auf.
Im Rahmen der Plaque-Studie identifizierten wir durchschnittlich 1.916 (± 465) bakterielle Metaproteine je Probe, die wir taxonomisch und funktionell 116 Genera sowie 1.316 Proteinfunktionen zuordnen konnten. Die Plaque inhibierende Wirkung von Listerine® zeigte sich durch eine Reduktion der Metaproteinidentifikation von durchschnittlich 23,5 % nach der Behandlung. Darüber hinaus zeigte die Mehrheit der bakteriellen Metaproteine reduzierte relative Abundanzen während für die Metaproteine humanen Ursprungs eine Erhöhung der Proteinabundanzen gegenüber der Kontrolle vor Behandlung zu verzeichnen war. Aus funktioneller Sicht waren insbesondere metabolische Prozesse, welche für das Zellwachstum und die Zellteilung wichtig sind, betroffen. Im Gegensatz dazu erhöhten sich durch die LPO Lutschtabletten sowohl die Identifikation der Metaproteine als auch die relative Abundanz für die Mehrheit der Proteine. Nach den durch die Metaproteomdaten erhaltenen funktionellen Informationen liegen Hinweise für einen wachsenden Biofilm vor. Die Metaproteine, die eine erhöhte Abundanz nach Behandlung mit den LPO-Dragees zeigten, wurden taxonomisch hauptsächlich Erst- (S. gordonii) und Zweitbesiedlern (F. nucleatum) sowie Bakterien zugeordnet, die einem gesunden Biofilm zuträglich sind.
Fazit: Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde ein vollständiger Metaproteom Arbeitsablauf von der Probensammlung, über die Probenpräparation bis hin zu Datenanalyse für das Speichel-, Zungen- und Plaque-Mikrobiom erarbeitet. In drei Studien konnten wir dessen Anwendbarkeit demonstrieren und erreichten vergleichbare Ergebnisse zu anderen Metaproteomstudien, beispielsweise bezüglich der Proteinidentifikation. Für die Sammlung von Speichelproben stellte sich der Paraffinkaugummi für Metaproteomstudien als die Methode der Wahl heraus. Für das Zungen-Mikrobiom veröffentlichten wir die ersten Metaproteomdaten. Darüber hinaus publizierten wir die erste Metaproteomstudie, welche die beiden Mikrobiome von Speichel und Zunge miteinander vergleicht. Hinsichtlich des Plaque-Mikrobioms handelte es sich ebenfalls um die erste Metaproteomstudie, die ein
anerkanntes und etabliertes zahnklinisches Modell mit den Vorzügen der Metaproteomiks verbindet. Die Ergebnisse liefern erste Daten, um (auf längere Sicht gesehen) ein Produkt zur täglichen Mundhygiene entwickeln zu können, welches die bakterielle Zusammensetzung des Plaque-Biofilms positiv beeinflusst.
Clostridioides difficile is the leading cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea referring to infections of the gastrointestinal tract in the course of (broad-spectrum)antibiotic therapy. While antibiotic therapy, preferentially with fidaxomicin or vancomycin, often stops the acute infection, recurrence events due to remaining spores and biofilm-associated cells are observed in up to 20% of cases. Therefore, new antibiotics, which spare the intestinal microbiota and eventually clear infections with C. difficile are urgently required. In this light, the presented work aimed at the evaluation and characterization of three natural product classes, namely chlorotonils, myxopyronins and chelocardins, with respect to their antimicrobial activity spectrum under anaerobic conditions and their potential for the therapy of C. difficile infections. Briefly, compounds of all three classes were screened for their activity against a panel of anaerobic bacteria. Subsequently, the systemic effects of selected derivatives of each compound class were analyzed in C. difficile using a proteomics approach. Finally, appropriate downstream experiments were performed to follow up on hypotheses drawn from the proteomics datasets. Thereby, all three compound classes demonstrated significant activity against C. difficile. However, chelocardins similarly inhibited the growth of other anaerobes excluding chelocardins as antibiotic candidates for C. difficile infection therapy. In contrast, chlorotonils demonstrated significantly higher in vitro activity against C. difficile and close relatives compared to a small panel of other anaerobes. In addition, it could be shown that chlorotonils affect intracellular metal homeostasis as demonstrated in a multi-omics approach. The data led to speculate that chlorotonils eventually affect cobalt and selenate availability in particular. Moreover, a metaproteomics approach verified that oral chlorotonil treatment only marginally affected the intestinal microbiota of piglets on taxonomic and functional level. Furthermore, the proteome stress response of C. difficile 630 to myxopyronin B, which similarly showed elevated activity against C. difficile compared to a few other anaerobes, indicated that the antibiotic inhibited early toxin synthesis comparatively to fidaxomicin. Finally, evidence is provided that C. difficile 630 responds to dissipation of its membrane potential by production and accumulation of aromatic metabolites.
In vitro and in vivo analyses of mono- and mixed-species biofilms formed by microbial pathogens
(2022)
Microbial biofilms can be defined as multicellular clusters of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular matrix (ECM), which is primarily composed of polymeric biomolecules. Biofilms represent one of the most severe burdens in both industry and healthcare worldwide, causing billions of dollars of treatment costs annually because biofilms are inherently difficult to prevent, treat, and eradicate. In health care settings, patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, or patients with medical implants are highly susceptible to biofilm infections. Once a biofilm is formed, it is almost impossible to quantitatively eradicate it by mechanical, enzymatical, chemical, or antimicrobial treatment. Often the only remaining option to fully eradicate the biofilm is removing of the infected implant or body part. The primary reasons for the inherent resistance of biofilms against all forms of antimicrobial treatment are (I) a reduced metabolic activity of biofilm-embedded cells climaxing in the presence of metabolic inactive persister cells, as well as (II) the protective nature of the biofilm matrix acting as a (diffusion) barrier against antimicrobials and the host immune system. Consequently, there is an urgent need to better understand microbial biofilms from a structural and (patho-) physiological point of view in order to be able to develop new treatment strategies.
Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate fundamental physiological properties of different clinically relevant single and multi-species biofilms, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the effectiveness of a novel treatment strategy using cold atmospheric pressure plasma was evaluated in vitro to treat biofilms of the pathogenic fungus C. albicans.
In article I, the intracellular and ECM protein inventory of Staphylococcus aureus during in vitro biofilm growth in a flow reactor was analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis combined with metabolic footprint analysis. This analysis showed that anaerobiosis within biofilms releases organic acids lowering the ECM pH. This, in turn, leads to protonation of alkaline proteins – mostly ribosomal proteins originating from cell lysis as well as actively secreted virulence factors – resulting in a positive net charge of these proteins. As a consequence, these proteins accumulate within the ECM and form an electrostatic network with negatively charged cell surfaces, eDNA, and metabolites contributing to the overall biofilm stability.
In article II, the in vivo metaproteome of the multi-species biofilm community in cystic fibrosis sputum was investigated. To this end, an innovative protocol was developed allowing the enrichment of microbial cells, the extraction of proteins from a small amount of cystic fibrosis sputum, and subsequent metaproteome analysis. This protocol also allows 16S sequencing, metabolic footprint analysis, and microscopy of the same sample to complement the metaproteome data. Applying this protocol, we were able to significantly enhance microbial protein coverage providing first insights into important physiological pathways during CF lung infection. A key finding was that the arginine deaminase pathway as well as microbial proteases play a so far underappreciated role in CF pathophysiology.
In articles III and IV, a novel treatment strategy for biofilms formed by the important fungal pathogen Candida albicans was evaluated in vitro. Biofilms were treated with two different sources of nonthermal plasma (with the Nonthermal Plasma Jet “kINPen09” as well as with the Microwave-induced plasma torch “MiniMIP”) and the effect on growth, survival, and viability was assessed by counting colony-forming units (CFU), by cell proliferation assays, as well as by live/dead staining combined with fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, (CLSM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These tests revealed that biofilms were effectively inactivated mostly on the bottom side of biofilms, indicating a great potential of these two plasma sources to fight biofilms.
A significant fraction of the decaying algal biomass in marine ecosystems is expected to be mineralized by particle-associated (PA) heterotrophic bacterial communities, which are thus greatly contributing to large-scale carbon fluxes. Whilst numerous studies have investigated the succession of free-living (FL) marine bacteria, the community structure and functionality of PA bacterial communities remained largely unexplored and knowledge on specific contributions of these microorganisms to carbon cycling is still surprisingly limited. This has mostly been due to technical problems, i.e., caused by the enormous complexity of marine particles and the high abundance of eukaryotic microorganisms within these particles. This thesis presents (a) an optimized metaproteomics protocol for an in-depth characterization of marine PA bacteria, (b) an application example with FL and PA communities sampled during a spring phytoplankton bloom in 2009 in the North Sea, which confirmed the reliability of the optimized metaproteomic workflow, (c) the metaproteomic analysis of particulate communities sampled during a spring phytoplankton bloom in 2018, resulting in an as yet unprecedented number of identified protein groups of the bacterial response bloom and (d) a proteomic analysis of a PA bacterial isolate grown on the two naturally abundant marine polysaccharides laminarin and alginate. The observed succession of bacterial clades during metaproteomic analyses of the investigated blooms highlights individual niche occupations, also visible on genus level. Additionally, functional data shows evidence for the degradation of different marine polysaccharides e.g., laminarin, alginate and xylan supporting the important role of PA bacteria during the turnover of oceanic organic matter. Furthermore, most of the identified functions fit well with the current understanding of the ecology of an algal- or surface-associated microbial community, additionally highlighting the importance of phytoplankton-bacterial interactions in the oceans. More detailed insights into the metabolism of PA bacteria were gained by the proteomic characterization of a selected PA bacterial isolate grown on laminarin and alginate. Functional analyses of the identified proteins suggested that PA bacteria employ more diverse degradation systems partially different from the strategies used by FL bacteria.
Rich knowledge about global nutrient cycles and functional interactions can be gained from the perspective of complex microbial proteomes. In this thesis, the application of environmental proteomics allowed for a direct in situ analysis of habitat-specific proteomes expressed by respective microbial communities from two different marine ecosystems. In the first part of this thesis, unculturable symbiont populations from tubeworms that colonize hydrothermal vents of the Pacific deep sea became accessible by use of community proteomics. This branch of environmental proteomics is generally employed to ascertain simple microbial assemblages derived from in situ samples. The proteome study was aimed at analyzing adaptations of seemingly monospecific symbionts to different hosts, the tubeworms Tevnia jerichonana und Riftia pachyptila. A comparison of the newly sequenced genomes of symbiont populations from both hosts confirmed that both symbioses involve the same bacterial species. Also the proteome analysis by 2D-PAGE showed a high physiological homogeneity for symbionts from both worm species, although the hosts are exposed to different geochemical conditions. Thus, the hosts provide their symbionts with a relatively stable internal environment by attenuation of external influences. Only minor variations in the symbionts proteomes reflected the differential environmental conditions outside the worms. Hence, the symbionts were able to fine-tune major metabolic pathways and oxidative stress in response to only minor chemical changes within their hosts. Moreover, new components of important physiological processes of the bacterial symbionts, like the sulfide oxidation and carbon fixation, were identified by in-depth proteomics of the Riftia symbiosis model system. The in situ protein samples showed as well that, in contrast to an earlier hypothesis, nitrate is used as an alternative electron acceptor. In the second part of this thesis, another branch of environmental proteomics called metaproteomics was applied to investigate the response of a bacterioplankton community to a spring phytoplankton bloom in the North Sea. Recurrent plankton blooms are a common phenomen of coastal areas, which however has only been investigated with limited resolution in biodiversity. Based on large-scale proteomic data sets it was found that specialized populations of Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria exhibited differential protein expression patterns. These involved oligomer transporters, glycoside hydrolases and phosphate acquisition proteins. A successive utilization of algal organic matter by microbes indicated a series of ecological niches occupied by the heterotrophic picoplankton. Key proteins, identified by metaproteomics, were further investigated by studying a model bacterium to define their specificities regarding the utilization of algal glycans. By isotope labeling of proteins, quantitative proteomics of the North Sea isolate Gramella forsetii KT0803, a Bacteroidetes representative could be conducted. The adaptation to the algal polysaccharides alginate and laminarin in comparison with glucose was analyzed. G. forsetii proved to be a specialist for the chosen algal polymers, in particular for glucans like laminarin. Primarily comprehensive clusters, the so-called polysaccharide utilization loci (PULs) were activated. The results of this model study complemented the basic concepts obtained by the metaproteomic approach about carbon cycling in coastal systems. The accessibility of numerous unculturable marine microbes by environmental proteomics allows to improve our understanding of interactions that drive symbioses or complex communities. Adaptations to environmental parameters, such as the abundance of substrates, can be analyzed and associated with respective populations. Thus statements can be made for functional groups of microorganisms, their ability for the creation of niches and their flexibility to respond to varying environmental impacts. The increasing number of marine model bacteria enables targeted analysis of specificities and adaptations and hence to support the environmental proteomics approach.