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In vitro and in vivo analyses of mono- and mixed-species biofilms formed by microbial pathogens
(2022)
Microbial biofilms can be defined as multicellular clusters of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular matrix (ECM), which is primarily composed of polymeric biomolecules. Biofilms represent one of the most severe burdens in both industry and healthcare worldwide, causing billions of dollars of treatment costs annually because biofilms are inherently difficult to prevent, treat, and eradicate. In health care settings, patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, or patients with medical implants are highly susceptible to biofilm infections. Once a biofilm is formed, it is almost impossible to quantitatively eradicate it by mechanical, enzymatical, chemical, or antimicrobial treatment. Often the only remaining option to fully eradicate the biofilm is removing of the infected implant or body part. The primary reasons for the inherent resistance of biofilms against all forms of antimicrobial treatment are (I) a reduced metabolic activity of biofilm-embedded cells climaxing in the presence of metabolic inactive persister cells, as well as (II) the protective nature of the biofilm matrix acting as a (diffusion) barrier against antimicrobials and the host immune system. Consequently, there is an urgent need to better understand microbial biofilms from a structural and (patho-) physiological point of view in order to be able to develop new treatment strategies.
Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate fundamental physiological properties of different clinically relevant single and multi-species biofilms, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the effectiveness of a novel treatment strategy using cold atmospheric pressure plasma was evaluated in vitro to treat biofilms of the pathogenic fungus C. albicans.
In article I, the intracellular and ECM protein inventory of Staphylococcus aureus during in vitro biofilm growth in a flow reactor was analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis combined with metabolic footprint analysis. This analysis showed that anaerobiosis within biofilms releases organic acids lowering the ECM pH. This, in turn, leads to protonation of alkaline proteins – mostly ribosomal proteins originating from cell lysis as well as actively secreted virulence factors – resulting in a positive net charge of these proteins. As a consequence, these proteins accumulate within the ECM and form an electrostatic network with negatively charged cell surfaces, eDNA, and metabolites contributing to the overall biofilm stability.
In article II, the in vivo metaproteome of the multi-species biofilm community in cystic fibrosis sputum was investigated. To this end, an innovative protocol was developed allowing the enrichment of microbial cells, the extraction of proteins from a small amount of cystic fibrosis sputum, and subsequent metaproteome analysis. This protocol also allows 16S sequencing, metabolic footprint analysis, and microscopy of the same sample to complement the metaproteome data. Applying this protocol, we were able to significantly enhance microbial protein coverage providing first insights into important physiological pathways during CF lung infection. A key finding was that the arginine deaminase pathway as well as microbial proteases play a so far underappreciated role in CF pathophysiology.
In articles III and IV, a novel treatment strategy for biofilms formed by the important fungal pathogen Candida albicans was evaluated in vitro. Biofilms were treated with two different sources of nonthermal plasma (with the Nonthermal Plasma Jet “kINPen09” as well as with the Microwave-induced plasma torch “MiniMIP”) and the effect on growth, survival, and viability was assessed by counting colony-forming units (CFU), by cell proliferation assays, as well as by live/dead staining combined with fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, (CLSM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These tests revealed that biofilms were effectively inactivated mostly on the bottom side of biofilms, indicating a great potential of these two plasma sources to fight biofilms.
Thiol or sulfhydryl groups are highly reactive functional groups in cellular systems. Molecules carrying thiol groups are mostly derivatives of the amino acid cysteine and are grouped as low molecular weight (LMW)-thiols: coenzyme A (CoA), glutathione (GSH) or bacillithiol (BSH). LMW-thiols can help in the maintenance of the reduced cellular environment as so called redox-buffers. Additionally, they act as co-factors in enzyme reactions or help in the detoxification of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, electrophilic compounds or thiophilic metalloids (arsenite, tellurite). In proteins from different organisms cysteine is underrepresented compared to other amino acids, but still overtakes diverse roles. It is an important determinant in the tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins. The nucleophilic character of the thiol or thiolate group, respectively, makes cysteine the catalytically active amino acids of different enzymes. As a precursor cysteine participates in the formation of Fe-S clusters and coordinates different co-factors like heme, iron or zinc. The main goal of this study was the investigation of the different cellular thiol pools, now defined as the thiolome. The thiolome is the entity of the cellular thiol pools, i.e. LMW-thiols and protein thiols, and the dynamics between these pools. In Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus mixed disulfides between protein thiols and free LMW-thiols, so called S-thiolations, were identified in different proteins in response to the thiol specific reagent diamide. Some of these S-thiolations were located at catalytically active cysteine residues. Subsequent analysis of metabolites supports this: the S-thiolation of the cobalamine-independent methionine-synthase MetE led to a decrease of the cellular methionine content. Additionally, the conversion of threonine to different branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) was disrupted by the S-thiolation of the branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase YwaA, thereby probably inducing the synthesis of ppGpp, the alarmon of the stringent response. In addition to the identification of S-thiolations a technique was established which allowed the discrimination between intra- and intermolecular disulfides. The non-reducing/ reducing diagonal gel electrophoresis was applied to B. subtilis and S. aureus and confirmed known existing disulfide bonds, e.g. in alkyl hydroperoxide reductase AhpC or the thiol peroxidase Tpx. In response to diamide an increase of specific disulfide bonds in different proteins was observed. The analysis of the LMW-thiol content by an HPLC-approach allowed the observation of the dynamics of the thiolome. In response to diamide the reduced LMW-thiol content decreased by 75%, reduced protein thiols by 60%. Collaborations with other working groups allowed the identification of BSH in this approach. Additionally, an unknown thiol was found that is likely a derivative of BSH. Screening of the LMW-thiol content of different S. aureus-strains under various growth conditions revealed that strains 8325-4 and SH1000 lack BSH. The lack of BSH was attributed to an 8 bp-duplication in the bshC-gene that encodes the last enzyme of the BSH-synthesis. BSH-production was restored by transducing plasmid-borne functional BshC from strain Newman into strains 8325-4 and SH1000. The reconstitution of the BSH-synthesis aided in the resistance to the antibiotic fosfomycin but did not increase the resistance to different oxidants (diamide, sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide). The production of BSH had also positive effects on the survival of S. aureus inside human bronchial epithelial cells and murine macrophages in phagocytosis assays. Additionally, a GSH-uptake was observed into S. aureus which has before been known as a GSH-free bacterium. Taken together, this thesis provides the first insights into both, the LMW-thiol- and protein thiol pool of low GC, Gram-positive bacteria under different conditions. A plethora of different methodologies was used to describe the thiolome. The bacterial thiolome is a sophisticated system which is tightly regulated, but also flexible enough to not rely on determined molecules like BSH. The influences of the thiolome are not restricted to its own system and regulation, but also affect different branches of cellular physiology like the metabolism of BCAAs.
The present work consists of four parts, containing experimental data obtained from analysis of 'Bacillus subtilis' specific and general defense strategies against reactive oxygen species. In the first part, the peroxide and superoxide stress stimulons ob 'B. subtilis' were analyzed by means of transcriptomics and proteomics. Oxidative stress responsive genes were classified into two groups: the gene expression pattern was either similar after both stresses or the genes primarily responded to one stimulus. The high induction observed for members of the PerR-regulon after both stimuli supported the assumption that activation of the peroxide specific PerR-regulon represented the primary stress response after superoxide and peroxide stress. The second part focuses on protein carbonylation in 'B. subtilis' wild-type and 'sigB' mutant cells. The introduction of carbonyl groups into amino acid side chains of proteins represents one possible form of protein modification after attack by reactive oxygen species. Carbonyl groups are readily detectable and the observed amounts can thus serve as an indicator for the severity of protein damage. The resultsdemonstrate clearly that 'B. subtilis' proteins are susceptible to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) mediated carbonylation damage. The application of low concentrations of H2O2 prior to the exposure to otherwise lethal levels of peroxide reduced markedly the degree of protein carbonylation, which also held true for glucose starved cells. Artificial preloading with general stress proteins resulted in a lower level of protein carbonylation when cells were subjected to oxidative stress, but no differences were detected between wild-type and 'sigB' mutant cells. In the third part, strains with mutations in genes encoding general stress proteins were screenedfor decreased resistance after H2O2 challenge. It was demonstrated that resistance to H2O2 challenge. It was demonstrated that resistance to H2O2 after transient heat treatment, likewise to conditions of glucose starvation, was at least partly mediated by the sB-dependent general stress response. The screening of mutants in sB-controlled genes revealed an important role for the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-binding protein Dps in the context of sB-mediated resistance to oxidative stress underlining previous reports. Therefore, the experimental strategy opens a global view on the importance of DNA integrity in 'B. subtilis' under conditions of oxidative stress. The fourth part includes analysis of a 'B. subtilis' thioredoxin conditional mutant. The thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase TrxA is an essential protein in 'B. subtilis' that is suggested to be involved in maintaining the cytoplasmic thiol-disulfide state even under conditions of oxidative stress. To investigate the physiological role of TrxA, growth experiments and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis were carried out with exponentially growing cells that were depleted of TrxA. The observations indicate that TrxA essentially involved in the re-reduction of phosphoadenosyl phosphosulfate reductase CysH within the sulfate assimilation pathway of 'B. subtilis'.