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Protamine (PRT) is a positively charged protein, which is widely used in medicine as an adjunct to certain preparations of insulin and as a rapidly-acting antidote for heparin, particularly to neutralize the effects of high heparin concentrations needed for anticoagulation during cardiac surgical procedures using cardiopulmonary bypass. It has been demonstrated that PRT and heparin form multimolecular complexes and that these complexes have high immunogenicity in a mouse model. Studies in this thesis provide new insights into the pathophysiology of anti-PRT/heparin antibodies. The results of study I showed that the administration of PRT combined with heparin is responsible for high immunoglobulin G (IgG) immunization after cardiac surgery. A subset of these antibodies was able to induce platelet activation in a way similar to that observed by heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Using an animal model, we demonstrated that anti-PRT/heparin antibodies are capable of platelet destruction in the presence of PRT and heparin. Moreover, our data suggests that platelet-activating anti-PRT/heparin antibodies at surgery are potentially associated with postoperative thrombocytopenia and an increased risk for thromboembolic events. In study II, the immune response against PRT/heparin complexes was investigated. This study showed a relatively fast development of IgG with no general preceding IgM formation. In addition, patients undergoing liver transplantation developed anti-PRT/heparin antibodies without previous exposure to PRT. These results suggest that a previous contact with the antigen(s) itself or other antigens with molecular mimicry induced this immune response. In fact, we were able to identify Neutral Protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin and core histones (DNA-binding proteins) as potentially antigenic candidates for a previous immunization. Furthermore, the findings of study III demonstrate the ability of anti-PRT/heparin antibodies to activate platelets in the presence of NPH insulin in a heparin-dependent way suggesting that diabetic patients may have an enhanced risk for thromboembolic complications if treated with NPH insulin and possibly while receiving prophylactic heparin. These observations justify further clinical investigations to assess the impact of the interaction between anti-PRT/heparin antibodies and PRT-mimicking antigens, such as NPH insulin or histones.
Protamine is administered as protamine sulfate to reverse the anticoagulant effect of heparin following cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Immunogenicity of protamine has been recognized for decades in several patient groups including vasectomized men, diabetic patients on protamine-containing insulin and patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Anti-protamine/heparin antibodies are a newly described class of heparin-dependent antibodies found in about 30% of patients exposed to protamine and heparin during cardiac surgery. A subset of seropositive patients especially who tested positive for platelet-activating anti-protamine/heparin immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies before surgery have prolonged postoperative thrombocytopenia with an increased risk for arterial occlusions. Studies presented in this thesis shed light on potential approaches that may prevent antibody-mediated platelet activation by anti-protamine/heparin antibodies. Two approaches are presented in this thesis, partially desulfated heparin (ODSH) and low molecular weight protamine (LMWP). Our studies demonstrated the ability of ODSH to inhibit anti-protamine/heparin antibody-mediated platelet destruction in the NOD/SCID mouse model by: i) reduction of antibody binding to preformed protamine/heparin complexes, as shown by enzyme immunoassay, ii) interfering with the binding of protamine/heparin complexes to platelets as shown by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy, and iii) inhibition of antibody-mediated platelet activation. Interestingly, ODSH was also able to block ongoing platelet destruction by displacing pre-bound complexes from the platelet surface. In addition, our data suggest the use of synthesized LMWP as a substitute for protamine in heparin reversal. The in vitro investigations showed that synthesized LMWP efficiently neutralizes heparin using the activated partial thromboplastin time. Anti-protamine/heparin antibodies have low binding properties to LMWP/heparin complexes as indicated in enzyme immunoassay. The ability of platelet-activating anti-protamine/heparin antibodies to induce platelet activation in the functional assay was significantly reduced in the presence of LMWP/heparin compared to protamine/heparin complexes. Owing to findings obtained in our studies, both approaches might be a promising future option to reduce anti-protamine/heparin antibody-mediated adverse effects.
Bis zu 5% der Patienten, welche unfraktioniertes Heparin erhalten, bilden eine immunogene Thrombozytopenie aus. Komplikationen dieser Heparin-induzierten Thrombozytopenie (HIT) können gliedmaßen- und lebensbedrohliche Thrombosen sein. Die HIT wird durch Antikörper ausgelöst, die an Komplexe aus dem körpereigenen Protein Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) und Heparin binden. Die Pathogenese der HIT ist weitestgehend aufgeklärt. Jedoch ist immer noch unklar, warum nicht alle Patienten mit anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern eine klinische HIT entwickeln. Testverfahren, die zum Nachweis von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern aufgereinigte Thrombozyten verwenden sind sensitiver als solche, bei denen Vollblut oder Plättchen-reiches Plasma eingesetzt werden. Daraus ergab sich die Fragestellung, ob Faktoren im Plasma den Durchbruch einer HIT bei Anwesenheit von anti-PF4/Heparin Antikörpern inhibieren können. Ein wichtiger Mechanismus in der Pathogenese der HIT ist die Bindung von PF4 an die Thrombozytenoberfläche. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, welche Plasmafaktoren die PF4-Bindung an Thrombozyten beeinflussen können. Da Blutfette und Zuckerstrukturen ausgeschlossen werden konnten, lag der Fokus auf Proteinen als mögliche Hemmfaktoren. Da nicht nur Plasma, sondern auch Serum die PF4-Bindung inhibieren konnte, kamen keine Gerinnungsfaktoren in Frage. Die gesuchten Faktoren waren auch nicht Hitze sensitiv, sodass es sich auch nicht um Komplementfaktoren handeln konnte. Bei einer Standardmethode zur Aufreinigung von IgG aus dem Serum fiel auf, dass das vom IgG befreite Serum keine hemmende Wirkung mehr auf die PF4-Bindung an Thrombozyten zeigte. Jedoch führte die Substitution mit IgG nicht zu dem erwarteten Hemmeffekt, so dass der gesuchte Faktor ebenfalls bei der Aufreinigung entfernt worden sein musste. Die in dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Charakterisierung des Hemmfaktors bildeten eine wichtige Grundlage, um in weiterführenden Versuchen in der gleichen Arbeitsgruppe Fibronektin als möglichen Kandidaten zu identifizieren.
The central aim of this thesis was the investigation of protein/polyanion interaction using circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, enzyme immune assay (EIA), isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and flow cytometry (FC). A further aim was to understand why an endogenous protein becomes immuno-genic when forming a complex. The focus was on the protein platelet factor (PF4), which gained wide interest in the clinical field, due to its role in the life-threatening, immune-driven, adverse drug effect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). PF4 is a small homotetrameric chemokine with several basic amino acids on its surface, forming a positively charged ring. The antibodies that are formed during HIT recognize an epitope exposed on PF4, when it is in a complex with heparin at a certain molar ratio at which, PF4 tetramers are aligned on the heparin and forced into close approximation. The main results and conclusions of the thesis are summarized below: 5.1 Evolutionary Conservation of PF4 (Paper I – PF4/Evolution) By carrying out an amino acid sequence survey we found that the positively charged amino acids contributing to the heparin binding site on the surface of PF4 and related proteins are highly conserved in all vertebrates, including fish species. PF4 interacts with the phospholipid lipid A, the innermost part of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Gram negative bacteria. We showed that the shorter the sugar chain of the O antigen, outer and inner core of the LPS were the more PF4 was binding. The interaction of PF4 with lipid A is inhibited by heparin, suggesting that the amino acids known to contribute to heparin binding are also involved in binding to lipid A. 5.2 PF4 Interaction with Polyanions (PA) of varying Length and Degree of Sulfation (Paper II – PF4/PA) CD spectroscopy was found to be a powerful technique to monitor structural changes of PF4 caused by binding to various clinically relevant polyanions. Therefore PF4 was titrated with different PA to investigate the dependencies: i. impact of the PF4:PA molar ratio, ii. degree of polymerization of the PA and iii. degree of sulfation of the PA. In all cases, exposure of HIT-relevant epitope(s) was only observed for PA that also induced changes in secondary structure of PF4. A comparison of results of an immune ¬assay with CD spectroscopic data showed that the extent of complex anti¬genicity correlates well with the magnitude of changes in PF4 secondary structure, and that the structural changes of PF4 have to exceed a certain threshold to achieve PF4/PA complex antigenicity. These findings allowed us to calculate expectation intervals for complex antigenicity solely using CD spectroscopic data. To our knowledge, this was the first demonstration that the capability of drugs to induce antigenicity of PF4 can be assessed without the necessity of in vivo studies or the use of antibodies obtained from immunized patients specific for the antigens. The antigenicity of PF4 in complex is not restricted to negative charges originating from sulfate groups, PA with phosphate groups are also capable (binding to phospholipids). We investigated inorganic polyphosphates (polyP) with a chain length of 75 Pi and showed that the induced secondary structural changes are even higher compared to the changes induced by the different heparins and that the PF4/P75 complexes are antigenic as well. 5.3 PF4 Interaction with defined oligomeric Heparins (Paper III – PF4/defined Heparins) We tested highly purified, monodisperse heparins. In contrast to the clinically relevant but relatively undefined (high polydispersity index) glycosamino glycans reported in paper II (PF4/PA). The defined heparins induced higher secondary structural changes. Here we showed for the first time that strong conformational changes during PF4/PA complex formation are necessary but not sufficient for to the expression of the anti-PF4/heparin antibody binding site. Also, the size of the complexes is not the only prerequisite for anti-PF4/heparin antibody binding (tested by atomic force microscopy). By ITC we found that antigenicity is only induced if the PF4/PA complex has a high binding enthalpy and the complex formation leads to a negative change in entropy. 5.4 PF4/Polyphosphates (polyP) Complex Antigenicity and Interaction with Escherichia coli (E. coli, Paper IV – PF4/polyP) PolyP with chain lengths of 45 Pi and 75 Pi induced remarkable secondary structural changes in the PF4 molecule, thereby exposing the epitope recognized by anti-PF4/heparin antibodies. The induced conformational changes were similar to the changes induced by the defined heparins. Again a high binding enthalpy was observed but here in connection with a positive change in entropy. Further we showed that polyP (≥45 Pi) enhance PF4 binding to the surface of Gram negative E. coli at intermediate concentration and disrupt the binding at elevated polyP concentrations. The increased amounts of PF4 on the bacterial surface also improved the binding of anti-PF4/heparin antibodies and thereby the phagocytosis of the bacteria by poly¬morpho¬nuclear leucocytes. 5.5 Nucleic acid based Aptamers induce structural Changes in the PF4 Molecule (Paper V – PF4/Aptamer) Nucleic acids are another class of molecules containing phosphate groups. Especially after cell damage their extra¬cellular concentration can be locally quite high (>2 mg/ml). We found that certain aptamers form complexes with PF4 and thereby inducing anti-PF4/aptamer antibodies which cross-react with PF4/heparin complexes. Moreover by CD spectroscopy we showed that the protein C-aptamer caused similar secondary structural changes of PF4 like heparin, but already at much lower concentration. The maximally induced changes by the protein-C aptamer were even higher and persisted over a broader concentration range. 5.6 Protamine Interaction with Heparin (Paper VI – PS/Heparin) After the intensive investigation of the complex formation between PF4 and many different classes of PA we assessed another protein for structural changes upon complex formation with heparin. Protamine (PS) a protein in routinely used in post-cardiac surgery to reverse the anticoagulant effects of heparin was found to unfold but not to refold with increasing concentration of PA in solution. 5.7 Conclusion and Outlook When starting this thesis, it was believed that repetitive structures formed by PF4 on a heparin chain mold the epitope recognized by antibodies inducing HIT. These repetitive structures might exhibit similarities with viral capsids and are therefore recognized by the immune system of some patients. We found that induced by the close approximation PF4 changes its conformation, thereby exposing a neoepitope. The conserved positively charged amino acids of the heparin binding site and the involvement of these amino acids in the binding to lipid A confirm our hypothesis of PF4 as part of an ancient immune-mediated host defense mechanism. As possible consequence of the “primitive mechanism of defense” the highly variable O-antigens of LPS might have significantly contributed to an efficient escape mechanism by hiding the structures that made the bacteria vulnerable. In turn polyP might be an adaption of the host improve pathogen recognition by PF4 and further by antibodies inducing phagocytosis of the PF4-marked objects. Although shown only for PF4 and PS, our findings might be applicable to other proteins that also express epitopes upon changes in their secondary structure. Our physicochemical methods may further be applied: i. to drug development for the prediction of antigenicity induced by polyanionic drugs, ii. to guide the development of synthetic heparins and other polyanion based drugs, e.g. aptamers, that do not lead to HIT and iii. to provide relevant aspects for other biological functions of heparins.
Die Heparin-induzierte Thrombozytopenie (HIT) ist eine seltene, aber lebens-bedrohliche unerwünschte Wirkung einer Therapie mit Heparin. Ausgelöst wird sie durch die Bildung von Antikörpern, die gegen Komplexe aus dem positiv geladenem Thrombozytenprotein Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) und negativ geladenem Heparin gerichtet sind und Thrombozyten aktivieren können, welches sich klinisch in einer schweren prothrombotischen Diathese bei gleichzeitiger Thrombozytopenie äußert. Bemerkenswert ist, dass im Widerspruch zur klassischen Immunantwort bei der HIT auch von Heparin-naiven Patienten binnen weniger Tage anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörper der Immunglobulinklasse G gebildet werden, welche eigentlich eine sekundäre Immunantwort repräsentieren. Darüber hinaus ist bekannt, dass PF4 auch mit verschiedenen polyanionischen Nichtheparinen Komplexe bildet, die von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern erkannt werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob Nukleinsäuren, die aufgrund ihres Reichtums an Phosphatgruppen ebenfalls stark negativ geladenen sind, mit PF4 Komplexe bilden, die von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern erkannt werden. Da eine Bildung antigener Komplexe mit PF4 für therapeutisch eingesetzte Nukleinsäuren von hoher praktischer Relevanz wäre, wurde außerdem die Interaktion von PF4 mit verschiedenen Aptameren untersucht. Dazu wurde die Interaktion zwischen PF4 und Nukleinsäuren in systematischen Bindungsstudien mit verschieden strukturierten Nukleinsäuren charakterisiert. Mittels Circulardichroismus-Spektroskopie wurde der Einfluss eines Modellaptamers auf die Sekundärstruktur von PF4 mit dem Einfluss von Heparin auf die PF4-Struktur verglichen. Die Kreuzreaktivität von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern gegen PF4/Nukleinsäure- bzw. PF4/Aptamer-Komplexe wurde mittels Immunassay und Thrombozytenfunktionstest untersucht. Schließlich wurde im Mausmodell die in-vivo-Immunogenität eines PF4/Aptamer-Komplexes überprüft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Nukleinsäuren längen- und strukturabhängig mit PF4 interagieren. Die Neigung zur Komplexbildung mit PF4 stieg mit der Länge der Nukleinsäure und dem Anteil doppelsträngiger Abschnitte. PF4/Nukleinsäure-Komplexe wurden von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörpern erkannt und konnten in Gegenwart dieser Antikörper eine Thrombozytenaktivierung vermitteln. Mit PF4/Aptamer-Komplexen immunisierte Mäuse produzierten anti-PF4/Aptamer-Antikörper, welche gegen PF4/Heparin-Komplexe kreuzreagierten. Diese Ergebnisse lassen vermuten, dass insbesondere Aptamere mit hohem Anteil an doppelsträngigen Abschnitten mit PF4 Komplexe bilden können, die ein ähnliches Epitop exprimieren wie PF4/Heparin-Komplexe und damit ein potentielles Risiko für die Erzeugung HIT-ähnlicher prothrombotischer Komplikationen bergen. Nukleinsäuren könnten einen endogenden Interaktionspartner von PF4 darstellen und das höhere HIT-Risiko von Patienten nach großen orthopädischen Eingriffen oder schweren Infektionen erklären, welche mit höheren Plasmaspiegeln zellfreier Nukleinsäuren einhergehen. Darüber hinaus könnte die Interaktion von PF4 mit endogenen Nukleinsäuren eine Erklärung für die frühe Produktion von anti-PF4/Heparin-Antikörper der Immunglobulinklasse G liefern.