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Die Dissertation beschreibt umfassende Untersuchungen zu den häufig miteinander assoziierten Tetraspaninen CD9, CD81 und CD151 an einer permanenten murinen Podozytenzelllinie. Sie gibt Aufschluss über die Bedeutung der Tetraspanine, insbesondere von CD151 in Podozyten. Podozytäre Veränderungen stehen häufig im Zusammenhang mit schweren glomerulären Defekten und bilden damit eine Ursache für renale Erkrankungen. Mit dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals gezeigt, dass die Tetraspanine CD9, CD81 und CD151 einen maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die Morphologie und die Adhärenz von kultivierten Podozyten ausüben. Dabei trägt vor allem die Einflussnahme der Tetraspanine auf die Zellfortsatzbildung sowie auf die Expression von β1-Integrin zu einem besseren Verständnis ihrer Rolle in Podozyten bei.
The global prevalence of kidney diseases has been steadily rising over the last decades. Today, around 10% of the world population suffers from relevant chronic kidney disease. Podocytes are highly specialized and terminally differentiated cells residing in the filtering units of the kidneys, the so-called glomeruli. With their interdigitating foot-processes, these cells are a crucial part of the renal filtration barrier. As podocytes are post-mitotic, injury or loss of these cells results in an impairment of the filtration barrier with subsequent loss of global kidney function. Therefore, the question whether a relevant amount of podocytes can be regenerated and if this regeneration can be influenced is crucial for future therapeutic developments. As in vivo microscopic imaging of podocytes in higher animals like mice or rats is rather challenging, larval zebrafish have been applied as an animal model for podocyte development and kidney filtration. 48 hours post fertilization, zebrafish larvae develop a single filtering glomerulus with a similar morphology and molecular construction to that in mammals. For evaluation of podocyte morphology and filtration, we used transgenic zebrafish strains in which podocytes were labeled with fluorescence proteins. Additionally, podocytes expressed the bacterial enzyme nitroreductase fused to the fluorescence protein mCherry. In this model, application of the antibiotic metronidazole leads to podocyte-specific cell death. Through cross-breeding we established strains that additionally express an eGFP-labeled protein in the blood plasma. Using in vivo two-photon microscopy, we could image podocyte-loss induced impairments of the glomerular filtration barrier. Additionally, we tracked characteristic morphological changes of podocyte morphology including podocyte foot process effacement, development of sub-podocyte pseudocysts and finally detachment of whole cells from the glomerular basement membrane. These changes have been before described histologically in different animal models as well as in patient biopsies. Using the in vivo microscopy approach, we could clearly describe the temporal sequence of these alterations. Finally, we also tracked individual, non-detached podocytes over up to 24 hours, and found that these cells were non-migratory. These results show that early podocyte-regeneration through immigration of intra- or extraglomerular cells is unlikely within the first 24 hours of acute glomerular injury.
Für eine intakte Filtration des Blutes sind hochspezialisierte Epithelzellen in den Glomeruli der Nieren, die Podozyten, essentiell. Der Verlust oder die Schädigung dieser postmitotischen Epithelzellen bzw. morphologische Veränderungen der komplex geformten Fortsätze dieser Zellen sind die häufigsten Ursachen für den Verlust der Filtrationsfähigkeit der Nieren. Diese besondere 3D-Morphologie der Podozyten hängt entscheidend vom Aktinzytoskelett und von Aktin-bindenden Proteinen ab. Aus der Literatur weiß man, dass das Aktin-bindende Protein Palladin einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Nukleation bzw. Polymerisation von Aktinfilamenten ausübt und dass Palladin sowohl die Morphologie als auch die Dynamik von Zellen bestimmt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Rolle von Palladin hinsichtlich der Podozytenmorphologie und -funktion in vitro und in vivo erstmals untersucht.
Mittels in vitro Experimenten an kultivierten Podozyten der Maus konnte gezeigt werden, dass ein Knockdown von Palladin zu einer deutlichen Abnahme der Aktinfilamente und kleineren Fokalkontakte führt. Interessanterweise hatte dies aber keinen Einfluss auf die Adhäsionfähigkeit der Podozyten, sogar unter mechanischer Bean¬spruchung. Ferner konnte gezeigt werden, dass Palladin einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Expression anderer essentieller Aktin-assoziierter Proteine, wie Synaptopodin und α-Aktinin-4, aufweist.
Dass Palladin eine wichtige Rolle bei der Bildung und Stabilität von Aktinfilamenten spielt, konnte durch die Inkubation von kultivierten Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren der Aktin-Polymerisation gezeigt werden. Die quantitative Auswertung mit Hilfe der Software F_Seg zeigte, dass Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten nach der Inkubation deutlich weniger Aktinfilamente und mehr Aktin-Cluster im Vergleich zu den Kontrollen aufweisen. Der Einsatz eines Migrations-Assays zeigte zudem, dass kultivierte Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten schneller migrieren und vermehrt dynamische Strukturen wie Lamellipodien und sogenannte Ring-Like-Structures (RiLiS) ausbilden.
Um den Einfluss von Palladin auf Podozyten in vivo zu untersuchen, wurden Mäuse generiert, bei denen Palladin spezifisch in den Podozyten ausgeknockt ist. Analysen der Glomeruli-Morphologie dieser Tiere mit Hilfe der Immunfluoreszenz-, Superresolution- und Elektronenmikroskopie (Raster- und Transmissionsmikros-kopie) zeigten eindeutig, dass die glomerulären Kapillaren stark erweitert waren und sich ein stark vergrößerter sub-podozytärer Raum ausgebildet hatte. Ferner waren die für die Filtration des Blutes maßgeblichen Fortsätze der Podozyten stark verbreitert und die Expression des essentiellen Schlitzmembranproteins Nephrin nach dem Knockout von Palladin signifikant reduziert.
Durch den Einsatz eines nephrotoxischen Serums wurde eine Glomerulonephritis induziert, die bei Podozyten-spezifischen Palladin-Knockout Mäusen zu einer stärkeren Schädigung der Glomeruli im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren führte. Dies deutet auf eine essentielle Rolle von Palladin für die Morphologie und Funktion der Filtrationsbarriere hin.
Des Weiteren konnte anhand von Nierenbiopsien nachgewiesen werden, dass die Palladin-Expression bei Patienten, die an einer fokal segmentalen Glomerulosklerose bzw. an der diabetischen Nephropathie erkrankt waren, im Vergleich zu den Kontrollnieren deutlich verringert ist.
Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit, dass Palladin sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf das Aktin-zytoskelett der Podozyten und somit auf die Funktion dieser hochspezialisierten Epithelzelle hat.
80% of chronic kidney diseases are caused by the loss and the damage of a differentiated and postmitotic cell type, the podocytes. The size-selectivity of the blood filtration barrier is highly dependent on the complex interdigitation of the podocyte foot processes as well as of the slit membrane which is spanned in between. Changes of this specific morphology as well as a detachment of podocytes lead to the clinical hallmark of a nephrotic syndrome e.g. proteinuria and oedema formation.
Since specific drugs or therapies are usually not available, patients are often dependent on dialysis and transplantation. Therefore, intensive studies are necessary to understand the pathogenesis of glomerulopathies as well as to identify specific drugs. In the past, it was already demonstrated that the zebrafish is an ideal model to study kidney function and to screen for drugs, since the larvae quickly develop a simple glomerulus that is comparable to the glomeruli of mice, rat and human.
In the present work, a zebrafish model was established to study a specific glomerulopathy named focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). FSGS is mainly characterized by histology of the glomeruli which shows segmental scar formation and matrix deposition due to an activation of parietal epithelial cells (PEC) lining the Bowman’s capsule. For this purpose, we used the nitroreductase/metronidazole (NTR/MTZ) system, in which a cytotoxic agent is exclusively generated in podocytes by the enzyme NTR resulting in apoptosis of cells. Firstly, the parameters for development of an FSGS-like disease were evaluated and the glomerular response to podocyte depletion was examined during three days after the induction of podocyte damage. Using classic histological techniques, immunofluorescence staining and transmission electron microscopy, it was possible to demonstrate that zebrafish larvae phenocopy human FSGS in important characteristics after partial podocyte depletion. Secondly, by intravascular injection of fluorescence-labeled high molecular weight dextran, we found that the filtration barrier became leaky. Moreover, we identified a severe podocyte foot process effacement, formation of subpodocyte space pseudocysts and loss of the slit membrane protein podocin. Morphometrical, histological and ultrastructural analysis revealed an enlargement of the glomerulus, proliferation of cuboidal PECs and intraglomerular deposition of extracellular matrix components, all typical hallmarks of FSGS. Further, we observed adhesions between the parietal and the visceral glomerular cell layer forming sclerotic lesions. However, it remains still unclear whether an inflammatory response is involved in the development of sclerotic lesions. Our microscopic analysis provided some evidence for immigration of immunocompetent cells like neutrophils, presumably due to induction of apoptosis in our model.
Taken together, in the present work a zebrafish model was established with characteristics of mammals FSGS which will be useful for pathomechanism studies as well as for drug screening.
Podocytes are highly specialized kidney cells that are attached to the outer aspect of the glomerular capillaries and are damaged in more than 75% of patients with an impaired renal function. This specific cell type is characterized by a complex 3D morphology which is essential for proper filtration of the blood. Any changes of this unique morphology are directly associated with a deterioration of the size-selectivity of the filtration barrier. Since podocytes are postmitotic, there is no regenerative potential and the loss of these cells is permanent. Therefore, identification of small molecules that are able to protect podocytes is highly important. The aim of this work was to establish an in vivo high-content drug screening in zebrafish larvae. At first, we looked for a reliable podocyte injury model which is fast, reproducible and easy to induce. Since adriamycin is commonly used in rodents to damage podocytes, we administered it to the larvae and analyzed the phenotype by in vivo microscopy, (immuno-) histology and RT-(q)PCR. However, adriamycin did not result in a podocyte-specific injury in zebrafish larvae. Subsequently, we decided to use a genetic ablation model which specifically damages podocytes in zebrafish larvae. Treatment of transgenic zebrafish larvae with 80 µM metronidazole for 48 hours generated an injury resembling focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis which is characterized by podocyte foot process effacement, cell depletion and proteinuria. Following this, we established an in vivo high-content screening system by the use of a specific screening zebrafish strain. This screening strain expresses a circulating 78 kDa eGFP-labeled Vitamin D-binding fusion protein, which passes the filtration barrier only after glomerular injury. Therefore, we had an excellent readout to follow podocyte injury in vivo. We generated a custom image analysis software that measures the fluorescence intensity of podocytes and the vasculature automatically on a large scale. Furthermore, we screened a specific drug library consisting of 138 compounds for protective effects on larval podocytes using this in vivo high-content system. The analysis identified several initial hits and the subsequent validation experiments identified belinostat as a reliable and significant protective agent for podocytes. These results led to a patent request and belinostat is a promising candidate for a clinical use and will be tested in mammalian podocyte injury models.
Study of the effect of the podocyte-specific palladin knockout in mice with a 129 genetic background
(2023)
Worldwide, chronic kidney disease is one of the leading public health problems. Podocytes, highly specialized postmitotic cells in the filtration unit of the kidney glomerulus, are essential for the size selectivity of the filtration barrier. Loss of the complex 3D morphology of their interdigitating foot processes, effacement and detachment of the cells from the capillaries lead to proteinuria and often loss of kidney function.
Since the morphology of podocyte foot processes is highly dependent on an intact actin cytoskeleton and actin-binding proteins, we investigated the role of the actin-binding protein palladin in podocytes from mice with a 129 genetic background, that is more susceptible to kidney injury. PodoPalld129-/- mice were examined at 6 and 12 months of age using immunofluorescence staining, electron and 3D super-resolution microscopy as well as qRT-PCR.
Our analysis of PodoPalld129-/- mice at 6 and 12 months of age showed that podocyte- specific knockout of palladin results in dilation of the capillary tuft accompanied by loss of mesangial cells, indicating the influence of palladin on glomerular tuft formation. Besides, we observed morphological abnormalities such as an enlarged sub-podocyte space, cyst formations and an increased number of cell-cell contacts between podocytes and parietal epithelial cells in PodoPalld129-/- mice compared to controls. Moreover, palladin knockout resulted in downregulation of the slit diaphragm protein nephrin as well as an age-dependent significant increase in podocyte foot process effacement. Although there was a significant change in foot process morphology, we did not detect albuminuria in PodoPalld129-/- mice of both age groups. However, we found an increase of trefoil factor 1 (Tff1) in the urine of the mice, indicating an altered, more permeable filtration barrier.
Considering that palladin has several binding sites for important actin-binding and regulatory proteins, we studied the expression of Lasp-1, Pdlim2, VASP and Klotho in dependence on palladin. We found a remarkable reduction in, for example, phosphorylated Lasp-1 as well as Klotho, which could influence the morphology of podocyte foot processes.
Compared with PodoPalldBL/6-/- mice, PodoPalld129-/- mice showed stronger glomerular tuft dilation and developed podocytes with increased morphological abnormalities, underlining the importance of the genetic background.
In conclusion, these results demonstrate the essential role of palladin for podocyte morphology in mice with a 129 genetic background.