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Environmental activism, defined as a range of difficult pro-environmental behaviors, is analyzed within the conceptual framework of Significance Quest Theory (SQT). In Study 1, 40 interviews were carried out on two groups of people in the European Union: Committed Actors for Nature (CANs, n = 25) versus Committed Actors for Society (CASs, n = 15). Results demonstrated that Significance Quest (SQ) motivates each group to be strongly committed to their chosen action and the main difference between them being in their ideology (pro-social vs. pro-environmental). In Study 2 (N = 131), the relationship between SQ and intention to enact difficult pro-environmental behaviors was assessed. Results suggested that the higher the SQ, the higher the tendency to enact difficult pro-environmental behaviors, but not average or easy ones. Moreover, the higher the pro-environmental ideology, the stronger the indirect effect of SQ on difficult behavior through willingness to sacrifice.
Background: Huntington’s disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The striatum is one of the first brain regions that show detectable atrophy in HD. Previous studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 3 tesla (3 T) revealed reduced functional connectivity between striatum and motor cortex in the prodromal period of HD. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological studies have suggested segregated corticostriatal pathways with distinct loops involving different cortical regions, which may be investigated using fMRI at an ultra-high field (7 T) with enhanced sensitivity compared to lower fields. Objectives: We performed fMRI at 7 T to assess functional connectivity between the striatum and several chosen cortical areas including the motor and prefrontal cortex, in order to better understand brain changes in the striatum-cortical pathways. Method: 13 manifest subjects (age 51 ± 13 years, cytosine-adenine-guanine [CAG] repeat 45 ± 5, Unified Huntington’s Disease Rating Scale [UHDRS] motor score 32 ± 17), 8 subjects in the close-to-onset premanifest period (age 38 ± 10 years, CAG repeat 44 ± 2, UHDRS motor score 8 ± 2), 11 subjects in the far-from-onset premanifest period (age 38 ± 11 years, CAG repeat 42 ± 2, UHDRS motor score 1 ± 2), and 16 healthy controls (age 44 ± 15 years) were studied. The functional connectivity between the striatum and several cortical areas was measured by resting state fMRI at 7 T and analyzed in all participants. Results: Compared to controls, functional connectivity between striatum and premotor area, supplementary motor area, inferior frontal as well as middle frontal regions was altered in HD (all p values <0.001). Specifically, decreased striatum-motor connectivity but increased striatum-prefrontal connectivity were found in premanifest HD subjects. Altered functional connectivity correlated consistently with genetic burden, but not with clinical scores. Conclusions: Differential changes in functional connectivity of striatum-prefrontal and striatum-motor circuits can be found in early and premanifest HD. This may imply a compensatory mechanism, where additional cortical regions are recruited to subserve functions that have been impaired due to HD pathology. Our results suggest the potential value of functional connectivity as a marker for future clinical trials in HD.
Multiproxy investigations of lacustrine sediments from Laguna Azul (52 °S) document multi-millennial Holocene influences of Southern Hemispheric Westerlies (SHW) on the hydroclimatic variability of south-eastern Patagonia. During the last 4000 years, this hydroclimatic variability is overprinted by centennial warm/dry periods. A cool/wet period from 11,600 to 10,100 cal. BP is succeeded by an early Holocene dry period (10,100–8300 cal. BP) with a shallow lake, strong anoxia, methanogenesis and high salinity. Between 8300 and 4000 cal. BP the influence of SHW weakened, resulting in a freshwater lake considered to be related to less arid conditions. Since 4000 cal. BP, regional temperature decreased accompanied by re-intensification of SHW reaching full strength since 3000 cal. BP. Centred around 2200, 1000 cal. BP and in the 20th century, Laguna Azul experienced century-long warm/dry spells. Between these dry periods, two pronounced moist periods are suggested to be contemporaneous to the ‘Dark Age Cold Period’ and the ‘Little Ice Age’. Different from millennial SHW variations, centennial fluctuations appear to be synchronous for South America and the Northern Hemisphere. Changes in solar activity, large volcanic eruptions and/or modulations of ocean circulation are potential triggers for this synchronicity.
Introduction: Senior urology physicians represent a heterogeneous group covering various clinical priorities and career objectives. No reliable data on gender-specific variations among senior urology physicians are available concerning professional and personal aspects. Methods: The objective of this study was to analyze professional perspectives, professional and personal settings, and individual career goals. A Web-based survey containing 55 items was designed which was available for senior physicians at German urologic centers between February and April 2019. Gender-specific differences were evaluated using bootstrap-adjusted multivariate logistic regression models. Results: One hundred and ninety-two surveys were evaluable including 29 female senior physicians (15.1%). Ninety-five percent would choose urology again as their field of specialization – with no significant gender-specific difference. 81.2% of participants rate the position of senior physician as a desirable career goal (comparing sexes: p = 0.220). Based on multivariate models, male participants self-assessed themselves significantly more frequently autonomously safe performing laparoscopic, open, and endourologic surgery. Male senior physicians declared 7 times more often to run for the position of head of department/full professor. Conclusion: This first study on professional and personal aspects among senior urology physicians demonstrates gender-specific variations concerning self-assessment of surgical expertise and future career goals. The creation of well-orchestrated human resources development strategies especially adapted to the needs of female urologists seems advisable.
Abstract
This article compares the use of calques modelled on anglicisms in different European languages, especially Spanish and German, which do not only show structural differences (e.g. with regard to the use of noun-noun compounds, which are more common in German) but also reflect different attitudes towards English. Aspects covered range from the factors generally favouring the coinage of such replacive forms, to the reasons for the emergence of different types of calques, to variations in their use and challenges concerning their identification. To unravel the main patterns and trends in calquing, this study includes numerous examples from written and oral language, i.e. items of different register affiliation, age, length, and semantic transparency. On a theoretical level, the article incorporates findings from the fields of lexicology, contact linguistics and sociolinguistics.
A 2-day workshop of ORCA and the IADR Cariology Research Group was organized to discuss and reach consensus on definitions of the most commonly used terms in cariology. The aims were to identify and to select the most commonly used terms of dental caries and dental caries management and to define them based on current concepts. Terms related to definition, diagnosis, risk assessment, and monitoring of dental caries were included. The Delphi process was used to establish terms to be considered using the nominal group method favored by consensus. Of 222 terms originally suggested by six cariologists from different countries, a total of 59 terms were reviewed after removing duplicates and unnecessary words. Sixteen experts in cariology took part in the process of reaching consensus about the definitions of the selected caries terms. Decisions were made following thorough “round table” discussions of each term and confirmed by secret electronic voting. Full agreement (100%) was reached on 17 terms, while the definitions of 6 terms were below the agreed 80% threshold of consensus. The suggested terminology is recommended for use in research, in public health, as well as in clinical practice.
A 2-day workshop of ORCA and the IADR Cariology Research Group was organized to discuss and reach consensus on definitions of the most commonly used terms in cariology. The aims were to identify and to select the most commonly used terms of dental caries and dental caries management and to define them based on current concepts. Terms related to definition, diagnosis, risk assessment, and monitoring of dental caries were included. The Delphi process was used to establish terms to be considered using the nominal group method favored by consensus. Of 222 terms originally suggested by six cariologists from different countries, a total of 59 terms were reviewed after removing duplicates and unnecessary words. Sixteen experts in cariology took part in the process of reaching consensus about the definitions of the selected caries terms. Decisions were made following thorough “round table” discussions of each term and confirmed by secret electronic voting. Full agreement (100%) was reached on 17 terms, while the definitions of 6 terms were below the agreed 80% threshold of consensus. The suggested terminology is recommended for use in research, in public health, as well as in clinical practice.
In this thesis, we elaborate upon Bayesian changepoint analysis, whereby our focus is on three big topics: approximate sampling via MCMC, exact inference and uncertainty quantification. Besides, modeling matters are discussed in an ongoing fashion. Our findings are underpinned through several changepoint examples with a focus on a well-log drilling data.
Background: Sedentary behavior (SB) is a modifiable behavior with increasing prevalence worldwide. There is emerging evidence that time spend in SB and the manner in which SB is accumulated over time is associated with cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health. The requirement for SB data to be accurately measured is minimization, or at least accurate quantification of human-related sources of measurement errors such as accelerometer measurement reactivity (AMR). The present thesis was to examine SB and their associations with cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health, and to focus on challenges related to the assessment of SB. The first aim of the thesis was to identify patterns of SB describing how individuals accumulate their time spend in SB day-by-day over one week, and to examine how these patterns are associated with cardiorespiratory fitness as a marker for cardiovascular health (paper 1). The second aim of the thesis was to examine the multiple types of SB, and how this is associated with a clustered cardiometabolic risk score (CMRS; paper 2). The third aim of the thesis was to examine AMR and the reproducibility in SB and physical activity (PA) in two measurement periods, and to quantify AMR as a confounder for the estimation of the reproducibility of SB and PA data (paper 3).
Methods: The three papers were based on data of two different studies. For study 1, 1165 individuals aged 40 to 75 years were recruited in three different settings. Among these, 582 participated in a cardiovascular risk factor screening program including cardiopulmonary exercise testing. For the analyses of paper 1, 170 participants were eligible, agreed to wear an accelerometer, fulfilled the wearing regime, and completed the study period by wearing the accelerometer for seven consecutive days. Patterns in accelerometer data were classified based on time spent in SB per day applying growth mixture modeling. Model‐implied class‐specific peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) means were compared using adjusted equality test of means (paper 1). The underlying study of paper 2 and 3 were based on data of a pilot study aiming to investigate the feasibility of a brief tailored letter intervention to increase PA and to reduce SB during leisure time. Among the individuals who agreed to be contacted again in study 1, a random sample of those aged between 40 and 65 years was drawn. Of those, 175 attended in a cardiovascular examination program. Assessment included giving blood sample, standardized measurement of blood pressure, waist circumference, body weight, and height at baseline, and after twelve months. Further, they agreed to complete a paper-pencil questionnaire on SB (Last 7-d Sedentary Behavior Questionnaire, SIT-Q-7d) and PA (International Physical Activity Questionnaire, IPAQ), and to receive seven-day accelerometery at baseline, and after 12 months. In addition, self-administered assessments were conducted at months one, three, four, and six after baseline. Only individuals of a random subsample (= intervention group) received up to three letters tailored to their self-reported SB and PA at months one, three, and four. For paper 2, associations between SBs and a clustered cardiometabolic risk score (CMRS) were analyzed using linear as well as quantile regression. To account for missing values at baseline, multiple imputations using chained equations were performed resulting in a total sample of 173 participants. Paper 3 comprised data of 136 individuals who participated at the baseline and twelve months assessments, and fulfilled the wearing regime. AMR was examined using latent growth modeling in each measurement period. Intraclass correlations (ICC) were calculated to examine the reproducibility of SB and PA data using two-level mixed-effects linear regression analyses.
Results: Results of paper 1 revealed four patterns of SB: 'High, stable', 'Low, increase', 'Low, decrease', and 'High, decrease'. Persons in the class 'High, stable' had significantly lower VO2peak values (M = 25.0 mL/kg/min, SD = 0.6) compared to persons in the class 'Low, increase' (M = 30.5 mL/kg/min, SD = 3.6; p = 0.001), in the class 'Low, decrease' (M = 30.1 mL/kg/min, SD = 5.0; p = 0.009), and in the class High, decrease' (M = 29.6 mL/kg/min, SD = 5.9; p = 0.032), respectively. No differences among the other classes were found. In paper 2, results revealed that the only factor positively associated with a CMRS in all regression models was watching television. Depending on the regression analysis approach used, other leisure-time SBs showed inconsistent (using a computer), or no associations (reading and socializing) with a CMRS. In paper 3, results revealed that time spent in SB increased (baseline: b = 2.3 min/d; after 12 months: b = 3.8 min/d), and time spent in light PA decreased (b = 2.0 min/day; b = 3.3 min/d). However, moderate-to-vigorous PA remained unchanged. Accelerometer wear time was reduced (b = 4.6 min/d) only at baseline. The ICC coefficients ranged from 0.42 (95% CI = 0.29 - 0.57) for accelerometer wear time to 0.70 (95% CI = 0.61 - 0.78) for moderate-to-vigorous PA. None of the regression models identified a reactivity indicator as a confounder for the reproducibility of SB and PA data.
Conclusions: The present thesis highlights SB in the field of cardiovascular and cardiometabolic research that have implications for future research. Individuals sit for different purposes and durations in multiple life domains, and the time spent in SB is accumulated in different patterns over time. Therefore, research should consider the fact that SB is embedded in an individual's daily life routine, hence might have differential effects on cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health. Further, methodological aspects have to be considered when dealing with SB. In order to detect how SB is 'independently' associated to an individual's health, an accurate measurement of SB is fundamental. Therefore, human-related sources of bias such as AMR should be taken into account when either planning studies or when interpreting data drawn from analysis of SB data.
For decades, evolutionary biologists have sought to understand the evolution of individual behaviour, physiology and ecology allowing organisms to cope to environmental change. One of the main challenges of current climate change is the unprecedent rate of temperature increase, as well as the increased occurence of extreme heat events. Interindividual response variability opens a whole new area of opportunities to understand how individual phenotypic traits are linked to individual response differences. In colour polymorphic species, colour honestly reflects an individual’s life-history strategy, and each morph may, therefore, represent an alternative life-history strategy. As such, colour polymorphic species, such as the Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae), may be good models to assess how different strategies between morphs are linked to their espective responses to environmental variations. However, polymorphic species have mainly been disregarded for that purpose. In this context, the main aim of this thesis was to understand how the two morphs of the Gouldian finch respond through phenotypic plasticity to simulated heatwaves reaching thermocritical temperatures, and whether such differential responses may help to identify a ‘winner’ and a ‘loser’ morph in the light of climate change. To address these issues, we used an integrative approach including measurements of behavioural (Study 1), physiological (Study 2), and reproductive (Study 3) parameters. The novelty of our approach was to assess the immediate behavioural and physiological response variation of individuals of the two morphs longitudinally across different thermal conditions, as well as the postponed effects of this thermocritical heatwave exposure on their reproductive performance. In this study, although the behavioural responses generally did not differ between morphs or according to temperature intensity, the physiological and reproductive parameters differed in response to morph and temperature intensity. Blackheaded females, in particular, seem highly sensitive to thermocritical heatwaves, as they exhibited decreased body mass and increased oxidative damage during the thermocritical heatwaves, and advanced breeding initiation after these conditions, whereas these variables remained mostly unaffected in black-headed males and red-headed individuals. However, despite some response differences between morphs, both invested similarly in reproduction following intense heatwaves, and the offspring of both morphs were similarly affected. Based on these results, no morph therefore seems to appear more disadvantaged than the other following an intense heatwave, and red- and black-headed Gouldian finches may both be considered as climate stress ‘losers’.
Background: Huntington’s disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The striatum is one of the first brain regions that show detectable atrophy in HD. Previous studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 3 tesla (3 T) revealed reduced functional connectivity between striatum and motor cortex in the prodromal period of HD. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological studies have suggested segregated corticostriatal pathways with distinct loops involving different cortical regions, which may be investigated using fMRI at an ultra-high field (7 T) with enhanced sensitivity compared to lower fields. Objectives: We performed fMRI at 7 T to assess functional connectivity between the striatum and several chosen cortical areas including the motor and prefrontal cortex, in order to better understand brain changes in the striatum-cortical pathways. Method: 13 manifest subjects (age 51 ± 13 years, cytosine-adenine-guanine [CAG] repeat 45 ± 5, Unified Huntington’s Disease Rating Scale [UHDRS] motor score 32 ± 17), 8 subjects in the close-to-onset premanifest period (age 38 ± 10 years, CAG repeat 44 ± 2, UHDRS motor score 8 ± 2), 11 subjects in the far-from-onset premanifest period (age 38 ± 11 years, CAG repeat 42 ± 2, UHDRS motor score 1 ± 2), and 16 healthy controls (age 44 ± 15 years) were studied. The functional connectivity between the striatum and several cortical areas was measured by resting state fMRI at 7 T and analyzed in all participants. Results: Compared to controls, functional connectivity between striatum and premotor area, supplementary motor area, inferior frontal as well as middle frontal regions was altered in HD (all p values <0.001). Specifically, decreased striatum-motor connectivity but increased striatum-prefrontal connectivity were found in premanifest HD subjects. Altered functional connectivity correlated consistently with genetic burden, but not with clinical scores. Conclusions: Differential changes in functional connectivity of striatum-prefrontal and striatum-motor circuits can be found in early and premanifest HD. This may imply a compensatory mechanism, where additional cortical regions are recruited to subserve functions that have been impaired due to HD pathology. Our results suggest the potential value of functional connectivity as a marker for future clinical trials in HD.
Long-term nationally representative caries data in the primary dentition are rare, but nonetheless central to assess needs in caries prevention and treatment. This study evaluated the prevalence and trends of caries levels in the primary dentition of 6- to 7-year-olds in Germany as a whole and its federal states individually. In 2016, employing a randomized cluster selection, 6- to 7-year-old first graders were included in the National German Oral Health Survey performed regularly since 1994/95. Children were examined by 482 calibrated dentists in all 17 German regions using the WHO criteria for the decayed, missing, and filled teeth (dmft) including the assessment of initial carious lesions (it). In total, 151,555 6- to 7-year-olds were examined. Caries prevalence in the primary dentition dropped from 65% in 1994 to 44% in 2016, while the mean caries experience dropped from 2.89 to 1.73 dmft (dt = 0.74, mt = 0.19, ft = 0.80). When initial lesions were included, the mean caries experience increased to idmft = 2.12 (it = 0.38). In 2016, 49.7% of the examined 6- to 7-year-olds were caries-free including initial lesions. The Care Index at the tooth level was 57.5%, and the Significant Caries Index was 4.84 dmft. Depending on the German region, the mean dmft varied considerably, ranging from 1.37 to 2.31. In conclusion, despite the overall caries decline in 6- to 7-year-olds in Germany, only minor caries reductions were observed over the last decade, with a still existing high proportion of untreated dental decay. This calls for more effective preventive and restorative efforts with focus on the primary dentition in Germany.
Objectives: Performing proper toothbrushing is a complicated process for children. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a smartphone app for improving manual toothbrushing via a gravitation sensor. Methods: In this prospective, controlled, single-blinded, randomized clinical trial, 49 children (mean age 5.1 ± 0.6 years, 27 female) were randomly assigned to test (n = 26) and control (n = 23) groups. All children were provided with manual toothbrushes with an integrated gravitation sensor and they received oral health instructions. Only the children of the test group got an additional smartphone app to visualize and reward proper brushing in form and time. At baseline and recalls after 6 and 12 weeks, plaque and gingival indices (QHI, PBI) were recorded for analysis between the two groups. Results: At baseline, there were no significant differences between the test and control group regarding plaque and gingival indices (QHI: 2.36 ± 0.7 and 2.42 ± 0.8; p = 0.94; PBI: 0.42 ± 0.2 and 0.47 ± 0.3; p = 0.59). At the 6- and 12-week recalls, the test group showed statistically significantly better oral health indices than the controls (6-week recall, QHI: 0.8 ±0.5 and 1.88 ± 0.9; p < 0.001; PBI: 0.08 ± 0.1 and 0.26 ± 0.2; p < 0.001; 12-week recall, QHI: 0.44 ± 0.5 and 1.49 ± 0.7; p < 0.001; PBI: 0.05 ± 0.18 and 0.21 ± 0.1; p < 0.001). Conclusion: The results highlight the enormous possibilities of a toothbrushing application via the smartphone, at least for medium-term oral hygiene improvement in preschool children and even after excluding the app. The long-term effect should also be investigated to exclude the expected novelty effect.
40-Year Longitudinal Caries Development in German Adolescents in the Light of New Caries Measures
(2019)
This study assessed the 40-year longitudinal caries development in German adolescents in the light of the sixth National Oral Health Survey in Children (NOHSC, 2016) employing initial DMFT (IDMFT), Significant Caries Index (SiC) and Specific Affected Caries Index (SaC). On the basis of the current NOHSC (randomized cluster selection using school list or regional community school surveys, 55,956 12-year-old sixth-graders examined by 482 calibrated community/study dentists) DMFT, SiC, a novel IDMFT including initial lesions (IT) and the recently introduced SaC were calculated and also recalculated for national and international surveys from the last 4 decades. In 2016, 78.8% of children were caries-free (DMFT = 0), 65.5% including IT lesions. The mean DMFT was 0.44 (single components: DT = 0.14, MT = 0.02, FT = 0.29, IT = 0.52) showing a clear association with the school type as marker for the socio-economic status. The mean number of affected teeth in children with DMFT >0 was 2.07 (SaC) in comparison to almost 9 teeth in the 1970s. The current care index on the tooth level was 66.3%, leaving only 7.7% of children with restorative treatment needs. Longitudinally, a continuous caries decline of more than 80%, including the risk groups (SiC/SaC), to an internationally extremely low level was observed. In conclusion, the National Oral Health Surveys reveal a continuous caries decline to a very low caries level in 12-year-old 6th-graders in Germany even if IT lesions are included (IDMFT). In spite of proportional reductions in the risk groups (SiC/SaC), the polarized caries distribution according to socio-economic parameters reveals the need for targeted preventive programmes.
Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) refer to any report coming directly from patients about how they function or feel in relation to a health condition or its therapy. PROs have been applied in medicine for the assessment of the impact of clinical phenomena. Self-report scales and procedures for assessing physical pain in adults have been developed and used in clinical trials. However, insufficient attention has been dedicated to the assessment of mental pain. The aim of this paper is to outline the implications that assessment of mental pain may entail in psychiatry and medicine, with particular reference to a clinimetric index. A simple 10-item self-rating questionnaire, the Mental Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), encompasses the specific clinical features of mental pain and shows good clinimetric properties (i.e., sensitivity, discriminant and incremental validity). The preliminary data suggest that the MPQ may qualify as a PRO measure to be included in clinical trials. Assessment of mental pain may have important clinical implications in intervention research, both in psychopharmacology and psychotherapy. The transdiagnostic features of mental pain are supported by its association with a number of psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, as well as borderline personality disorder. Further, addressing mental pain may be an important pathway to prevent and diminish the opioid epidemic. The data summarized here indicate that mental pain can be incorporated into current psychiatric assessment and included as a PRO measure in treatment outcome studies.
Phylogeny of the Koi herpesvirus and development of a vaccine against the Koi herpesvirus disease
(2019)
The aim of this presented dissertation was a stable, live attenuated and protective KHV usable as vaccine. Moreover this vaccine should by cost effective and easy to apply. Differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals was preferred by genetic and / or serological means. After achieving an attenuated virus, whole genome sequencing should be done to examine the genetic of the vaccine as one feature of biosafety. Besides biosafety additional knowledge on the virulence of Alloherpesviruses, especially of KHV was anticipated. Additionally the diagnostics of KHV and KHVD should be improved to increase reliability and to gain more insights into the relationship of different KHVs and hopefully to detect the source of an outbreak.
Up to now, indices like the mean dmft/DMFT and the SiC (Significant Caries Index) have been used to depict caries experience in populations with high prevalence. With the caries decline, particularly for populations with low caries levels, these indices reach their statistical limits. This paper aims to introduce a specific term, the Specific affected Caries Index (SaC) for the risk groups in populations with low caries prevalence and to illustrate its use based on the consecutive German National Oral Health Survey (GNOHS) in children. In groups with a caries prevalence less than one-third of the population, many caries-free children (DMFT = 0) are included in the SiC (risk group), which calls for a new way of illustration. Mean caries experience (DMFT), caries prevalence, the SiC and SaC were portrayed for 12-year-olds in the GNOHS from 1994/95 to 2016. The SaC describes the mean caries experience (DMFT) in the group presenting caries experience (DMFT > 0). In 12-year-old 6th graders in Germany, the mean caries experience decreased from 2.4 (1994/95) to 0.4 DMFT (2016), with a recent prevalence of 21.2% (DMFT > 0, 2016). In 2016, the mean number of affected teeth in children with DMFT > 0 (SaC) was 2.1, while the SiC including 12% DMFT-free children in the risk group was 1.3. The SiC fails to reflect the caries severity in children in a population with low caries prevalence. Therefore, the newly introduced term Specific affected Caries Index (SaC) may be used to describe accurately caries experience in caries risk children in populations presenting low caries prevalence.
The present work focusses on the mosquito populations of two zoological gardens in Germany with the aim to better understand mosquito biology of native species and to contribute to a greater awareness of mosquito and mosquito-borne disease agent surveillance in zoos. For this purpose, data on species composition, blood meal patterns and mosquito-borne pathogens were analysed. The investigated zoological gardens differed not only in their sizes and animal stocks, but also in their surrounding environments. The 160 ha Tierpark Berlin is located in a densely populated urban area, while the 15 ha Zoological Garden Eberswalde is surrounded by forest.
To gain an overview about the mosquito fauna of both zoos, adult specimens were caught by aspirating and EVS-trapping during the 2016 season. In addition, larval stages were collected from their breeding sites located in the zoo areas. In total, 2,257 mosquitoes were sampled, belonging to 20 taxa. Seasonal differences between the zoos were documented, both in terms of species composition and the relative abundance of mosquito species collected. As the studied zoos were located in the same climatic region and both locations provided similar breeding sites, differences in species composition were attributed to the entry of mosquitoes from surrounding landscapes. Influencing factors could have been the different sizes of the zoos and variations in the potential host animal populations.
According to the vector potential of most frequently collected taxa in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde (Annulipes Group, Culiseta annulata), TAHV, USUV, WNV, filariae and avian malaria parasites appear to have the highest risk of being transmitted at this location. In the Tierpark Berlin, Aedes vexans was the most frequently collected mosquito species, suggesting a theoretical risk for the transmission of a broader spectrum of pathogens due to covered vector competences. Pathogens such as BATV, SINV, TAHV, USUV and filarial worms could be of major importance regarding transmission risk to zoo animals, as they had previously been found to circulate Germany. In addition, avian malaria parasites represent a considerable risk for susceptible exotic bird species in Berlin.
Since the blood-feeding behaviour of vector-competent mosquito species has a major influence on the transmission of a mosquito-associated pathogen, the analysis of blood meal patterns is crucial to better understand vector-pathogen cycles. Therefore, blood meals of blood-fed mosquitoes caught in 2016 and 2017 by aspirating and EVS-trapping in the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde were analysed. The aim was to investigate to what extent native mosquito species accept exotic zoo animals, wild native animals and humans as blood hosts. In addition, it was examined whether the collected species are generalists or specialists when selecting vertebrates for blood feeding.
A total of 405 blood-fed mosquitoes from 16 taxa were collected. The genetic analysis of blood meals identified 56 host species, which – in addition to humans – mainly originated from mammals of the zoo animal populations. In agreement with the previous study on the mosquito fauna of the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde, the analysis of blood meals also showed differences between the two zoos. In the smaller Zoological Garden Eberswalde, a higher number of blood-fed mosquitoes was collected than in the Tierpark Berlin, probably caused by a higher host density in Eberswalde, which may have led to an overall higher mosquito density. However, no differences between both zoos were observed with respect to the blood feeding behaviour of the analysed mosquito species: Mosquitoes of both locations were rather generalistic, although species could be grouped according their blood meals into 'amphibian', 'non-human mammal' and, ‘non-human mammal and human' feeding species. The more random selection of hosts could indicate a low probability of effective pathogen transmission by applying the 'dilution effect'. Notwithstanding, since wild animals have also been accepted as hosts, pathogen transmission by bridge vectors from one vertebrate group to another could be relevant in the sampled zoos.
Adult mosquito specimens collected in 2016 and 2017 were screened for filarial nematodes, avian Haemosporidia and mosquito-borne viruses. Dirofilaria repens was detected in a mosquito from the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from Berlin and Eberswalde were tested positive for the nematode species S. tundra. Sindbis virus was found in a mosquito pool collected in the Tierpark Berlin, while no mosquito-associated viruses were detected in specimens collected in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from both zoos were positive for the haemosporidian parasites Haemoproteus sp. and Leucocytozoon sp., and one documentation was made for avian Plasmodium sp. in the Tierpark Berlin.
The identified pathogens have the potential to cause disease in captive and wild animals, and some of them also in humans. Most of the mosquitoes tested positive had been collected in July, suggesting a high infection risk during this month. Since most pathogen detections were made from species belonging to the Cx. pipiens complex, species of this complex seem to be most relevant in the studied zoos when it comes to mosquito-borne pathogen transmission. Although mosquitoes are no proven vectors of most of the avian malaria parasite genera found, evidence for Haemoproteus sp. and Leucozytozoon sp. demonstrated a high prevalence of avian malaria parasites in the zoos.
In summary, the results of the three studies indicate regional differences both in the mosquito species composition and in the occurrence of mosquito-borne pathogens. However, no differences were found between the mosquito communities of both zoos concerning their blood feeding behaviour, suggesting that the general behaviour of the insects is location-independent.
Several potential disease agents were found in the collected mosquitoes, although not at high abundances. Whether these pathogens were found by chance in the two zoos or whether the particular zoo environment is a hot spot of arthropod-borne pathogens cannot be determined with the studies conducted. Nonetheless, it seems clear that zoological gardens are attractive to mosquito females not only in their search for breeding sites, but also when looking for blood hosts and places for mating or resting. These advantageous conditions also attract mosquito species that have their larval habitats outside the zoological gardens, which is why elimination of breeding sites on the zoo premises alone will not necessarily keep away all mosquitoes.
A closer collaboration between zoological gardens and entomologists could be beneficial for both. Zoo officials could benefit from being able to identify potential arthropod vectors on the zoo grounds and receiving information on circulating arthropod-borne disease agents, as well as on the animal species susceptible to those. For entomologists, zoological gardens are ideal research locations, as they provide an environment with a high diversity of habitats and potential blood hosts for haematophagous arthropods in a confined space.
Studying mosquito biology will become even more significant in the future, since in a world that is getting smaller, both potential vectors and pathogens are regularly introduced into areas where they did not occur before. Therefore, it would be desirable if more studies targeting ecological as well as infectiological aspects of vector species in zoological gardens in Germany were carried out.
In times of recent climate change, mechanisms to deal with different environments (e.g. via dispersal to other habitats, or via in-situ responses such as genetic adaptation or phenotypic plasticity) are essential. In regions showing seasonality, organisms are already adapted to regular and, thus, often predictable environmental changes. One well-known strategy to survive periods of food shortage, especially during the winter, is hibernation. Although hibernation is already an adaptation to overcome unfavourable conditions, the optimal timing of hibernation to match for example food abundance peaks is likely to be influenced by changing climatic conditions, as expected during human-induced global change. Thus, the ability to respond to changes in optimal timing of hibernation can be crucial for organisms. All hibernators are positioned at the slow end of the slow-fast life history continuum. Longevity combined with a low annual reproductive output can result in slow recovery from population crashes and is expected to be associated with slow genetic adaptation. Therefore, it is assumed that phenotypic plasticity, a rather rapid and sometimes reversible process, is a crucial mechanism in long-lived organisms to adapt to changing environments. However, how differences in individual hibernation behaviour influence mortality and whether individuals are plastic with respect to their hibernation behaviour are largely unknown.
Recent studies suggest that climatic change can influence hibernation behaviour in various species differently, in a positive or negative way. Female Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus) delayed their emergence from hibernation with later snow melt and lower spring temperatures. Next to the environmental impact, emergence date showed a moderate heritability in female Columbian ground squirrels. Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) emerged earlier from hibernation with warmer spring temperatures which resulted in a longer growing period for their offspring and, therefore, higher survival rates. In contrast, in alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) lower snow cover due to higher temperatures and, thus, less isolation led to lower juvenile survival. Negative effects, such as reduced juvenile survival, would be of high concern, especially for long-lived species with a low reproductive output.
Bats are exceptionally long-lived compared to other mammals of the same size and often show a low reproductive output with one offspring per year. This is especially true in the temperate zone where bats, furthermore, are characterized by seasonality and depend on hibernation during winter period to survive food and water shortage. Because bats are of high conservation concern it is of prime importance to understand their ability to respond to different climatic conditions and associated mortality costs.
The basis of this study was a five-year data set of 1047 RFID-tagged individuals from two bat species, Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri) and Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii), that were automatically tracked when entering or leaving the joint hibernaculum, “Brunnen Meyer”, located in north-western Germany. The two species are similar sized, share demographical traits and often occupy the same areas. Nevertheless, they differ in their foraging strategy and activity pattern during hibernation period. Natterer’s bats are able to glean insects from surfaces, even at low temperatures. Daubenton’s bats depend on flying arthropods and, thus, warmer temperatures. And indeed there is evidence that Natterer’s bats are able to hunt during hibernation period, while in Daubenton’s bats a lack of feeding during the hibernation period is suggested. Furthermore, Natterer’s bats are characterized by a higher activity at the hibernaculum throughout the hibernation period, while Daubenton’s bats on average arrive earlier, stay inactive through the winter and leave later in spring.
In both species, the aim was to investigate the impact of their individual hibernation behaviour, precisely the timing of departure in late winter and early spring, on mortality, their adjustment of departure timing to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO), as well as differences within and between the two species from 2011 until 2015.
To later on estimate the potential mortality costs of departure timing, gaining knowledge about the seasonal survival pattern (winter vs. summer) in the two species was a first necessity. In birds, particularly small species were described as winter-regulated populations with a higher mortality during winter. In contrast, in hibernating mammal species, such as bats, a relatively lower or similar winter survival compared to summer survival was shown. In this study, the analysed data demonstrated that the winter 2010/2011 was exceptionally catastrophic in Natterer’s bats and did not impact Daubenton’s bats. When excluding this catastrophic winter in Natterer’ bats, our results revealed a stable winter-summer-survival difference (higher winter and lower summer survival) in adult Natterer’s and Daubenton’s bats, with inter-annual variation in the level of survival which indicates a potential environmental impact on survival. This winter-summer survival pattern is in line with the survival pattern shown for other hibernators. Juveniles always had a lower survival rate than adult bats in both species. Nevertheless, the extent to which the species differ between seasons and age classes was stronger in Daubenton’s bats. They always showed a slightly higher winter survival and a lower summer survival than Natterer’s bats. Together with the catastrophic winter 2010/2011 in Natterer’s bats, this indicates a species-specific sensitivity to the timing of specific weather events which is in line with their foraging strategies and activity pattern during hibernation period.
With respect to emergence behaviour from the hibernaculum, the results of this study suggest considerable differences among individuals within as well as between bat species. In comparison to Daubenton’s bats, Natterer’s bats tuned their emergence more closely to weather conditions, specifically the NAO, a large scale weather index related to winter severity, and showed individual variation in behavioural plasticity. In Daubenton’s bats only the females responded to changing conditions and left earlier in individually-experienced warmer and milder winters, comparable to Natterer’s bats females. A potential reason might be reproductive advantages for the females resulting in a longer growing period for their offspring. The shown higher winter survival in adult bats of both species indicated already higher energy expenditure outside the hibernaculum. Thus, leaving early, being active and staying outside longer by itself bore a risk (exposure risk effect). Under consideration of longer exposure times, early departing individuals had on top of that an increased risk to die. This was not given in each year, but a species- and year-specific pattern was revealed. Natterer’s bats were only significantly affected by early departure in 2011, while the remaining years show no significant additional risk of leaving early. In Daubenton’s bats, the years 2014 and 2015 were associated with a significantly higher mortality of leaving early. This is in line with the hypothesis that Daubenton’s bats might not be able to hunt for insects leaving too early and do so as a best out of a bad job. Nevertheless, the year-specific pattern suggests that early bats might profit from advantageous weather conditions during early spring.
An additional hint for an environmental impact on early bat survival in at least Daubenton’s bats is that the median proportion of night hours above 3 °C within five days after departure was included in the model with the lowest AIC. However, the effect was not strong enough to be selected as the best model and, therefore, further analyses are needed to investigate this first hint.
In conclusion, the reduced winter survival of juveniles compared to adults highlights the importance of considering age class effects in studies that investigate seasonal survival patterns. The stable species-specific winter-summer-survival difference with a higher winter survival compared to summer survival, as well as the one catastrophic winter in Natterer’s bats underline the importance of including seasonal survival patterns in assessing potential fitness costs of changed behaviour. Furthermore, our results suggest that long-lived hibernating bat species have the potential to plastically adjust to changing climatic conditions, but this potential differs between species. Among-individual differences in emergence together with species-specific mortality costs of early emergence suggest the potential for natural selection to shape hibernation phenology. In summary, our findings suggest species-, population- and group-specific differences in the ability to respond to changing environments and, therefore, underline the necessity to further investigate local responses in various organisms to estimate consequences of recent climate change on a wider range.
Climate change threatens marine ecosystems by simultaneous alterations and fluctuations in several abiotic factors like temperature, salinity and pH. Therefore, a strong ability to cope with varying environmental factors is indispensable for marine organisms. Especially, larvae of meroplanktonic species will be affected by predicted alterations in environmental conditions as planktonic larval stages are considered the most sensitive stages during life history (Anger 2001).
The European shore crab Carcinus maenas, as an ecological key species, was chosen as a model species to investigate multiple stressor effects on early life history stages of marine meroplanktonic invertebrates. The life cycle of C. maenas is biphasic consisting of five pelagic larval stages (four zoeal and one megalopal stage), followed by benthic juvenile and adult phases. The metamorphic molt from the last zoeal stage to the semi-benthic Megalopa includes dramatic changes in ecology, habitat, behavior, feeding, morphology, and physiology. During life history, zoeal stages of C. maenas are of particular interest in the course of climate change as these stages are more vulnerable than the following developmental stages to alterations in abiotic factors.
The aim of the present thesis was to develop an integrative view on effects of long-term exposure, from hatching to metamorphosis, to increased temperature and hypo-osmotic conditions on early life history stages of C. maenas. We wanted to gain insights into larval responses to climate driven environmental variables, more specifically, on how tolerance to low salinity is affected by increased temperatures.
Consequently, the present study investigated the effect of long-term exposure to twelve different sub-lethal temperature and salinity combinations in an ecological relevant range on larval development of C. maenas. In a multidisciplinary approach, larval responses in performance (survival and developmental duration) and morphology were measured. Furthermore, analysis on larval ontogeny and organogenesis created the foundation for analysis of larval response to multiple stressors in anatomy.
Results of the present thesis demonstrated that despite their different life-styles and external morphology, brachyuran larvae are smaller versions of their adults when regarding their inner organization: the adult bauplan unfolds from organ anlagen compressed into miniature organisms. In addition, they provide an overall picture of seemingly gradual organogenesis across larval development and the metamorphic molt, an insight that contrasts with the abrupt external morphological changes during metamorphosis. Gradual anatomical changes in e.g. osmoregulatory structures like gills and antennal glands allowed for ontogenetic shifts of tolerance to temperature and salinity during zoeal development and successive increase in osmo- and thermoregulatory capability. On the other hand, osmoregulatory structures as seen for adults were underdeveloped during zoeal development and therefore do not qualify for osmoregulatory function for these stages. This potentially explains the higher sensitivity of zoeae to hypo-osmotic conditions.
Early life history stages of C. maenas were affected on all response levels by the tested multiple stressors. The interaction of temperature and salinity was of antagonistic type, resulting in general reduced stress for larval stages. Nevertheless, low salinity had a strong negative impact on survival, while increased temperature caused ann acceleration of development. Furthermore, the size of zoeae of C. maenas was driven by the interaction of temperature and salinity, with extreme conditions, causing diminished growth, thus resulting in smaller larval size. On the other hand, larval shape was only slightly affected by changes of abiotic factors. Volume of the digestive gland and the heart of larvae from long-term exposure to sub-lethal temperatures and salinities showed high variability.
Larval responses were affected by the stressors intensities: moderately high temperatures lessened the negative effects of low salinities, while extreme high temperatures exceeded the ameliorating effect of temperature on stressful salinity conditions. On the other hand, the tolerance to temperature and salinity increased during larval development indicating an ontogenetic shift in response to multiple stressors with development. In addition, performance, morphology, and multiple stressor interaction showed intrapopulation variability among larvae hatched from different females, and between experimental periods.
In conclusion, this study highlighted direct effects of abiotic factors on all investigated response levels in early life history stages of the meroplanktonic larvae of the invertebrate C. maenas. High mortality rates combined with higher sensitivity confirm that planktonic early life history stages are the bottleneck during life history of this species. Nevertheless, early life history stages of C. maenas had the ability to cope with wide ranges of changing environmental factors. The antagonism between temperature and salinity on larval development offers potential for early life history stages to persist in a changing world. Furthermore, anatomical structures allow for slight eurytolerance and potentially for compensation of abiotic stress. Overall, slight increases in temperature, driven by climate change may enable larvae of C. maenas to tolerate exposure to moderately low salinities and, combinedwith intrapopulation variability, potentially allows for population persistence. Summarized, this study emphasizes the importance of testing a wide range of ecologically relevant traits in developing pelagic larvae in order to properly characterize their response to environmental change.
Changes in abundance and phenology of planktonic larvae like the zoeae of C. maenas have major potential to change a species‘ population structure significantly, and furthermore indirectly affect whole community and ecosystem structures. Therefore, this thesis may serve as a bridge to future studies in evolutionary and ecological developmental biology.