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Das Neuroblastom ist eine pädiatrische Tumorerkrankung, die ihren Ursprung in undifferenzierten Nervenzellen des sympathischen Nervengewebes hat. Das ereignisfreie 5-Jahresüberleben von Hochrisikopatienten liegt trotz der Einführung neuer gegen das Disialogangliosid GD2-gerichteter Antikörpertherapien weiterhin nur bei ca. 50 %. Daher ist es wichtig, die Biomarker zu finden, die helfen, Patienten zu identifizieren, die bisher noch nicht von den etablierten Therapieansätzen profitieren. In dieser Arbeit wurden immunologische und genetische Parameter untersucht, die möglicherweise als Biomarker für das Ansprechen auf eine GD2-gerichtete Immuntherapie in Kombination mit Interleukin 2 (IL-2) dienen können. Dafür wurde der Einfluss der zytotoxischen NK-Zellen, Granulozyten (Eosinophile und Neutrophile) und regulatorischen T-Zellen (Treg) sowie der Zytokine IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 und CCL2 auf die antikörperabhängige zelluläre Zytotoxizität (antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, ADCC) und dem ereignisfreien Überleben analysiert. Weiterhin wurde die Rolle von patientenspezifischen FCGR2A-H131R und 3A-V158F-Polymorphismen sowie die Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) und KIR-Liganden (KIRL)-Genotypen bei einer Immuntherapie evaluiert.
53 Patienten haben bis zu fünf Zyklen Immuntherapie erhalten. Ein Zyklus beeinhaltete zunächst fünf Tage 6×106 IU/m2/Tag IL-2-Behandlung (Tage 1 - 5), gefolgt von einer Langzeitinfusion von dem anti-GD2-Antikörper ch14.18/CHO (Tage 8 - 18) in Kombination mit 6×106IU/m2/Tag IL-2 (Tage 8 – 12). Die Zahl der Effektorzellen und die Zytokinserumkonzentrationen wurden mittels Durchflusszytometrie ermittelt und die FCGR-Polymorphismen und KIR/KIRL-Genotyp mit einer validierten Real-Time-PCR bestimmt. Die ADCC wurde mittels eines Calcein-AM basierten Zytotoxizitätstest erfasst.
Die IL-2-Monotherapie an den Tagen 1-5 steigerte die Zahl der NK-Zellen, der Treg und der Eosinophilen stark im Vergleich zum Basiswert (Zyklus 1, Tag 1). Die Expansion der Neutrophilen wurde hingegen erst nach dem Start der Antikörperbehandlung beobachtet (Tag 15). IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 und CCL2 erreichten ihre Spitzenkonzentrationen ebenfalls erst während der Antikörpertherapie. Überraschenderweise korrelierte weder die NK-Zell- noch die Granulozytenzahl mit der ADCC und dem ereignisfreien Überleben der Patienten. Hingegen zeigten Patienten mit einer starken Expansion der Treg signifikant niedrigere IFN-γ-Serumkonzentrationen sowie ein schlechteres ereignisfreies Überleben im Vergleich zu Patienten mit niedriger Treg-Zahl. Außerdem hatten Patienten mit hoher IL-18-Serumkonzentration währender der Antikörpertherapie ein signifikant verbessertes Überleben verglichen mit Patienten mit niedriger IL-18-Serumkonzentration. Zusammenfassend wurde eine starke Induktion der Treg beobachtet, die invers mit der IFN-γ-Serumkonzentration und dem ereignisfreien Überleben der Patienten korrelierte.
Die Patienten mit den hochaffinen FCGR2A-131H- und 3A-158V-Polymorphismen zeigten einen höhere ADCC und ein verlängertes ereignisfreies Überleben gegenüber den Patienten mit den FCGR2A-131R- und 3A-158F-Polymorphismen. Patienten mit aktivierenden KIR (Genotyp B/x), insbesondere dem KIR2DS2, zeigten eine gesteigerte ADCC und ein verlängertes ereignisfreies Überleben verglichen mit den Patienten mit dem inhibitorischen KIR-Genotyp ohne aktivierende KIR (Genotyp A/A). Entsprechend hatten Patienten mit dem vorteilhaften KIR2DS2 und hochaffinen FCGR-Polymorphismen die stärkste Induktion der ADCC und das längste ereignisfreie Überleben im Vergleich zu Patienten mit inhibitorischen KIR-Genotyp und niedrigaffinen FCGR-Polymorphismen. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass KIR- und FCGR2A- und 3A-Genotypen die ADCC sowie das Ansprechen auf eine ch14.18/CHO-basierte Immuntherapie in Kombination mit IL-2 beeinflussen und daher in Zukunft als Biomarker für diese Therapie dienen können.
Schließlich erwiesen sich FCGR-Polymorphismen in Kombination mit der Treg-Zahl als Biomarker zur Identifizierung von Patienten, die kein Ansprechen auf die Immuntherapie gezeigt hat.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass immunologische und genetische Parameter als prädiktive Biomarker einer antikörperbasierten Immuntherapie bei Patienten mit Hochrisikoneuroblastom verwendet werden können, um Patienten zu identifizieren, die von der bisherigen Immuntherapie nicht profitieren würden. Für solche Patienten müssen alternative Therapieoptionen angeboten werden um einen schnellen Rückfall der Erkrankung zu verhindern.
Immunotherapies against high-risk neuroblastoma (NB), using the anti-GD2 antibody (Ab) dinutuximab beta (DB), significantly improved patient survival. Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is one of the main mechanisms of action and it is primarily mediated by NK cells. To further improve antitumor efficacy, we investigated here a combinatorial immunotherapy with DB and the double immune checkpoint blockade of T-cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT) and programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1). The effects of ADCC, mediated by DB against NB cells on NK-cell activity, and the expression of TIGIT and CD226 and their ligands CD112 and CD155, as well as of PD-1 and PD-L1 on NB and effector cells, were investigated using flow cytometry. ADCC was assessed with a calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay. The efficacy of a combinatorial immunotherapy with DB, given as a long-term treatment, and the double immune checkpoint blockade of TIGIT and PD-L1 was shown using a resistant murine model of NB, followed by an analysis of the tumor tissue. We detected both TIGIT ligands, CD112 and CD155, on all NB cell lines analyzed. Although ADCC by DB resulted in a strong activation of NK cells leading to an effective tumor cell lysis, a remarkable induction of PD-L1 expression on NB cells, and of TIGIT and PD-1 on effector cells, especially on NK cells, was observed. Additional anti-TIGIT or anti-PD-L1 treatments effectively inhibited tumor growth and improved survival of the mice treated with DB. The superior antitumor effects were observed in the “DB + double immune checkpoint blockade” group, showing an almost complete eradication of the tumors and the highest OS, even under resistant conditions. An analysis of tumor tissue revealed both TIGIT and TIGIT ligand expression on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), suggesting additional mechanisms of protumoral effects in NB. Our data show that the targeting of TIGIT and PD-L1 significantly improves the antitumor efficacy of anti-GD2 immunotherapy, with DB presenting a new effective combinatorial treatment strategy against high-risk tumors.
Treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma (NB) patients with the anti-GD2 antibody (Ab) dinutuximab beta (DB) improves survival by 15%. Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is the major mechanism of action and is primarily mediated by NK cells. Since IL-2 co-treatment did not show a therapeutic benefit but strongly induced Treg, we investigated here a DB-based immunotherapy combined with the immunocytokine FAP-IL-2v, which comprises a fibroblast activation protein α (FAP)-specific Ab linked to a mutated IL-2 variant (IL-2v) with abolished binding to the high-affinity IL-2 receptor, thus stimulating NK cells without induction of Treg. Effects of FAP-IL-2v on NK cells, Treg and ADCC mediated by DB, as well as FAP expression in NB, were investigated by flow cytometry, calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay and RT-PCR analysis. Moreover, the impact of soluble factors released from tumor cells on FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was assessed. Finally, a combined immunotherapy with DB and FAP-IL-2v was evaluated using a resistant syngeneic murine NB model. Incubation of leukocytes with FAP-IL-2v enhanced DB-specific ADCC without induction of Treg. FAP expression on NB cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDCS) in tumor tissue was identified. A tumor-cell-dependent enhancement in FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was demonstrated. Combination with DB and FAP-IL-2v resulted in reduced tumor growth and improved survival. Analysis of tumor tissue revealed increased NK and cytotoxic T cell numbers and reduced Treg compared to controls. Our data show that FAP-IL-2v is a potent immunocytokine that augments the efficacy of DB against NB, providing a promising alternative to IL-2.
Haploidentical stem cell transplantation (haplo SCT) in Stage IV neuroblastoma relapsed patients has been proven efficacious, while immunotherapy utilizing the anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta has become a standard treatment for neuroblastoma. The combinatorial therapy of haplo SCT and dinutuximab may potentiate the efficacy of the immunotherapy. To gain further understanding of the synergistic effects, functional immunomonitoring was assessed during the clinical trial CH14.18 1021 Antibody and IL2 After haplo SCT in Children with Relapsed Neuroblastoma (NCT02258815). Rapid immune reconstitution of the lymphoid compartment was confirmed, with clinically relevant dinutuximab serum levels found in all patients over the course of treatment. Only one patient developed human anti-chimeric antibodies (HACAs). In-patient monitoring revealed highly functional NK cell posttransplant capable of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Degranulation of NK cell subsets revealed a significant response increased by dinutuximab. This was irrespective of the KIR receptor–ligand constellation within the NK subsets, defined by the major KIR receptors CD158a, CD158b, and CD158e. Moreover, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) was shown to be an extremely potent effector-cell independent mechanism of tumor cell lysis, with a clear positive correlation to GD2 expression on the cancer cells as well as to the dinutuximab concentrations. The ex vivo testing of patient-derived effector cells and the sera collected during dinutuximab therapy demonstrated both high functionality of the newly established lymphoid immune compartment and provided confidence that the antibody dosing regimen was sufficient over the duration of the dinutuximab therapy (up to nine cycles in a 9-month period). During the course of the dinutuximab therapy, proinflammatory cytokines and markers (sIL2R, TNFa, IL6, and C reactive protein) were significantly elevated indicating a strong anti-GD2 immune response. No impact of FcGR polymorphism on event-free and overall survival was found. Collectively, this study has shown that in-patient functional immunomonitoring is feasible and valuable in contributing to the understanding of anti-cancer combinatorial treatments such as haplo SCT and antibody immunotherapy.
Background
Short-term infusions of dinutuximab beta plus isotretinoin and cytokines administered in previous immunotherapy studies in neuroblastoma were associated with severe pain. Here, long-term, continuous infusion of single-agent dinutuximab beta was evaluated in patients with relapsed/refractory neuroblastoma.
Methods
In this open-label, single-arm, Phase 2 study, patients with either refractory or relapsed high-risk neuroblastoma received dinutuximab beta by continuous infusion over 10 days of each cycle, for up to five cycles. The primary endpoint was objective response rate 24 weeks after the end of cycle 5. Secondary endpoints included adverse events, intravenous morphine use, best response, duration of response, and three-year progression-free and overall survival.
Results
Of the 40 patients included, 38 had evaluable response. Objective response rate was 26% and best response rate 37%. Median duration of response was 238 days (IQR 108–290). Three-year progression-free and overall survival rates were 31% (95% CI 17–47) and 66% (95% CI 47–79), respectively. Prophylactic intravenous morphine use and duration of use decreased with increasing cycles. The most common grade 3 treatment-related adverse events were pain, diarrhea, and hypokalemia.
Conclusion
Long-term continuous infusion of single-agent dinutuximab beta is tolerable and associated with clinically meaningful responses in patients with relapsed/refractory high-risk neuroblastoma.
Clinical trial registration
The study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02743429) and EudraCT (2014-000588-42).
Simple Summary
The treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma patients with anti-GD2 antibodies has improved survival, and it is an established treatment strategy; however, many patients still experience a late relapse. One disadvantage of passive immunotherapy is the absence of a memory response. Therefore, developing an active immunotherapy leading to a sustained immune response may provide a solution and prevent the occurrence of late relapses following anti-GD2 antibody therapy. Here, we describe the first-in-man compassionate use of the ganglidiomab vaccine following passive immunotherapy with an anti-GD2 antibody (dinutuximab beta) in seven neuroblastoma patients. The vaccine was well-tolerated, and all patients not pre-treated by haploidentical transplantation developed vaccine-specific immune responses.
Abstract
(1) Background: High-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) is associated with a poor prognosis despite a multimodal high-intensity treatment regimen, including immunotherapy with anti-GD2 monoclonal antibodies (mAb). Here, we investigated the effects of an anti-idiotypic vaccine based on the mAb ganglidiomab that structurally mimics GD2. (2) Methods: Patients with HR-NB treated with anti-GD2 mAb dinutuximab beta and who achieved complete remission after frontline or salvage therapy were offered the vaccine (0.5 mg ganglidiomab adsorbed to Alhydrogel®). Side effects (CTCAE v4.03) and immune responses were determined on each visit. We also evaluated the time to relapse or progression until the last follow-up. (3) Results: Seven HR-NB patients (five frontlines, two relapsed) received 6–22 subcutaneous injections every two weeks. Six of the seven patients showed an immune response. The non-responding patient had a haploidentical stem cell transplantation as part of the previous treatment. No fever, pain, neuropathy, or toxicities ≥ grade 3 occurred during or post-treatment. All immunized patients did not experience relapses or progressions of their neuroblastoma. (4) Conclusions: This is the first-in-man use of the ganglidiomab vaccine, which was well-tolerated, and all patients not pre-treated by haploidentical transplantation developed vaccine-specific immune responses. These findings provide an important basis for the design of prospective clinical trials.
BCL11B, an essential transcription factor for thymopoiesis, regulates also vital processes in post-thymic lymphocytes. Increased expression of BCL11B was recently correlated with the maturation of NK cells, whereas reduced BCL11B levels were observed in native and induced T cell subsets displaying NK cell features. We show that BCL11B-depleted CD8+ T cells stimulated with IL-15 acquired remarkable innate characteristics. These induced innate CD8+ (iiT8) cells expressed multiple innate receptors like NKp30, CD161, and CD16 as well as factors regulating migration and tissue homing while maintaining their T cell phenotype. The iiT8 cells effectively killed leukemic cells spontaneously and neuroblastoma spheroids in the presence of a tumor-specific monoclonal antibody mediated by CD16 receptor activation. These iiT8 cells integrate the innate natural killer cell activity with adaptive T cell longevity, promising an interesting therapeutic potential. Our study demonstrates that innate T cells, albeit of limited clinical applicability given their low frequency, can be efficiently generated from peripheral blood and applied for adoptive transfer, CAR therapy, or combined with therapeutic antibodies.
Patients with high-risk neuroblastoma treated with continuous long-term infusion of anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta (DB) in combination with IL-2 show an acceptable safety profile. Here, we compared treatment tolerance with and without IL-2. Ninety-nine patients with high-risk neuroblastoma received up to five cycles of DB given as long-term infusion (10 mg/m2/d, 100 mg/m2; per cycle) with IL-2 (53 patients; regimen A; 6 × 106 IU/m2/d; 60 × 106 IU/m2/cycle) and without IL-2 (46 patients; regimen B) in a single-center compassionate use program. Clinical parameters (body temperature, vital signs, Lansky performance score), laboratory values [C-reactive protein, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-18 (cycle 1)], and requirement of i.v. co-medication (e.g., morphine, metamizole) were systematically assessed. Patients with stable clinical parameters and that did not require co-medication were defined as potential “outpatient candidates.” Patients showed higher levels of body temperature and CRP in regimen A compared to B. However, IL-6 serum concentrations were similar in pts of both cohorts in the first cycle. Patients receiving regimen B showed a shorter time to achieve normal vital parameters and required less co-medication compared to patients in regimen A that resulted in a shorter median time period to discharge and to achieve a potential outpatient status (6d regimen A and 3–5d regimen B after start of antibody infusion, respectively). This study shows that omitting IL-2 from immunotherapy with DB allows reduced co-medication and hospitalization time and therefore results in improved quality of life in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma.