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Die Neurotrophine (Nerve Growth Factor, Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor, Neurotrophin-3 und Neurotrophin-4/5) zählen zu den wichtigsten Wachstumsfaktoren des Nervensystems und sind von großer Bedeutung für Gehirnentwicklung und neuronale Plastizität. Sie vermitteln ihr Wirkungen über zwei Rezeptorsysteme: Trk-Rezeptoren binden Neurotrophine spezifisch und mit hoher Affinität. Sie aktivieren anti-apoptotische, wachstums- und differenzierungsfördernde Signalwege. Der niedrigaffine p75-Neurotrophinrezeptor (p75) hingegen kann Rezeptorkomplexe mit verschiedenen Ko-Rezeptoren und einer Vielzahl von Liganden bilden. Das Spektrum seiner möglichen Effekte ist beachtlich, wobei pro-apoptotische und wachstumshemmende Wirkungen überwiegen. Interessanterweise kommt es bei einer Reihe von pathologischen Prozessen zu einer vermehrten Expression von p75, etwa bei Morbus Alzheimer, Amyotropher Lateralsklerose, Chorea Huntington und nach Gehirnverletzungen. Inhibitoren der pro-apoptotischen und wachstumshemmenden Wirkung bergen Potenzial für die Therapie dieser Krankheitsbilder. Transgene p75-Knockout-Modelle sind ein wichtiges Instrument für ein besseres Verständnis des Rezeptors. Aus den bisher vorliegenden Daten zu Morphologie und Verhalten solcher Mäuse ergibt sich jedoch ein widersprüchliches Bild. Im gesunden adulten Nervensystem wird p75 insbesondere durch cholinerge Neurone des basalen Vorderhirns (BFCN) exprimiert. In mehreren Studien wurde bei p75-defizienten Mausstämmen eine Hypertrophie der BFCN und der cholinergen Innervation des Hippocampus beobachtet. Für ein weiteres wichtiges Zielgebiet von BFCN-Projektionen, die basolaterale Amygdala (BLA), liegen bisher jedoch keine Daten vor. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war daher die Erfassung der cholinergen Innervationsdichte dieses Kerngebiets bei jungen und gealterten p75-Knockout-Tieren und Vergleich mit den entsprechenden Wildtyp-Kontrollen. In allen Altersgruppen war bei p75-Defizienz eine erhöhte Faserdichte nachweisbar. Im Hippocampus unterliegen die cholinergen Neuriten bei Knockout-Tieren einer verstärkten Degeneration im Alter. Dieser Effekt trat in der BLA nicht auf. Da im adulten Hippocampus p75 physiologischerweise exprimiert wird, in der adulten Amygdala jedoch nicht, weist dies auf eine trophische Wirkung des Rezeptors für hippocampale cholinerge Neurone hin, die vermutlich in Assoziation mit Trk-Rezeptoren vermittelt werden. Eine Testung höherer Verhaltensfunktionen bei p75-Defizienz erbringt Hinweise auf die funktionellen Auswirkungen der morphologischen Veränderungen. Bisherige Studien zeigen Abweichungen bei lokomotorischer Aktivität, Angstverhalten und räumlichem Lernen, sind jedoch im Detail widersprüchlich. Geringe Kohortengrößen und ungenaue Angaben zur Testdurchführung schränken die Aussagekraft teilweise ein. Ein weiteres Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist daher die Prüfung dieser Verhaltensfunktionen bei p75-Defizienz mittels standardisierter Testmodelle unter Verwendung größerer Testkohorten. Im Open Field-Versuch wiesen Knockout-Tiere eine erhöhte motorische Aktivität auf. Im Holeboard-Versuch zeigte sich jedoch keine begleitende Zunahme zielgerichteter Exploration. In der Dark/Light Box fiel ein signifikanter Gruppenunterschied im Einfluss der zirkadianen Rhythmik auf das Verhalten in diesem Testmodell auf. Dies erschwert die Testinterpretation, trägt jedoch auch zur Erklärung der Diskrepanzen in der Literatur bei. Im Morris Water Maze zeigten Knockout-Tiere deutliche Defizite beim räumlichen Lernen. Als Ursache der Verhaltensauffälligkeiten kommen Veränderungen des cholinergen Systems, der neuronalen Plastizität und der zirkadianen Rhythmik in Betracht. Zudem sind Veränderungen weiterer Transmittersysteme wahrscheinlich. Die Untersuchung dieser Systeme und die Durchführung spezialisierter Verhaltenstests sind interessante Ansatzpunkte für zukünftige Studien.
In the thesis the reason for the low breeding success of white rhinos in captivity was investigated and solutions suggested. It was also investigated how to improve management of free ranging populations. It was establish whether female white rhinoceros choose their mates and, if so, which factors influence their choice. The study also seeks to establish whether there is any relationship between androgens, environmental factors and mating activity. The study was carried between March 1997 and May 1999 on a private game farm in South Africa. The study animals enjoyed conditions similar to those enjoyed by free-ranging populations. A non-invasive endocrine monitoring technique was developed to assess the androgen concentrations in faeces of male white rhinos. The body and horn size of adult males was measured, the concentration of testosterone in their faeces determined, and the characteristics of their territories investigated. All of these factors were then set in relation to their reproductive success. The reproductive success was established by genetic analysis of fatherhood using AFLP methods. The quality of male territories was described by vegetation structure, tree and grass species composition, the availability of frequently foraged or selected grass species as well as the nutritional composition of the forage. In addition, the influence of seasonal rainfall, presence of receptive females and territorial activity on androgen metabolite concentrations was established.
In times of recent climate change, mechanisms to deal with different environments (e.g. via dispersal to other habitats, or via in-situ responses such as genetic adaptation or phenotypic plasticity) are essential. In regions showing seasonality, organisms are already adapted to regular and, thus, often predictable environmental changes. One well-known strategy to survive periods of food shortage, especially during the winter, is hibernation. Although hibernation is already an adaptation to overcome unfavourable conditions, the optimal timing of hibernation to match for example food abundance peaks is likely to be influenced by changing climatic conditions, as expected during human-induced global change. Thus, the ability to respond to changes in optimal timing of hibernation can be crucial for organisms. All hibernators are positioned at the slow end of the slow-fast life history continuum. Longevity combined with a low annual reproductive output can result in slow recovery from population crashes and is expected to be associated with slow genetic adaptation. Therefore, it is assumed that phenotypic plasticity, a rather rapid and sometimes reversible process, is a crucial mechanism in long-lived organisms to adapt to changing environments. However, how differences in individual hibernation behaviour influence mortality and whether individuals are plastic with respect to their hibernation behaviour are largely unknown.
Recent studies suggest that climatic change can influence hibernation behaviour in various species differently, in a positive or negative way. Female Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus) delayed their emergence from hibernation with later snow melt and lower spring temperatures. Next to the environmental impact, emergence date showed a moderate heritability in female Columbian ground squirrels. Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) emerged earlier from hibernation with warmer spring temperatures which resulted in a longer growing period for their offspring and, therefore, higher survival rates. In contrast, in alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) lower snow cover due to higher temperatures and, thus, less isolation led to lower juvenile survival. Negative effects, such as reduced juvenile survival, would be of high concern, especially for long-lived species with a low reproductive output.
Bats are exceptionally long-lived compared to other mammals of the same size and often show a low reproductive output with one offspring per year. This is especially true in the temperate zone where bats, furthermore, are characterized by seasonality and depend on hibernation during winter period to survive food and water shortage. Because bats are of high conservation concern it is of prime importance to understand their ability to respond to different climatic conditions and associated mortality costs.
The basis of this study was a five-year data set of 1047 RFID-tagged individuals from two bat species, Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri) and Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii), that were automatically tracked when entering or leaving the joint hibernaculum, “Brunnen Meyer”, located in north-western Germany. The two species are similar sized, share demographical traits and often occupy the same areas. Nevertheless, they differ in their foraging strategy and activity pattern during hibernation period. Natterer’s bats are able to glean insects from surfaces, even at low temperatures. Daubenton’s bats depend on flying arthropods and, thus, warmer temperatures. And indeed there is evidence that Natterer’s bats are able to hunt during hibernation period, while in Daubenton’s bats a lack of feeding during the hibernation period is suggested. Furthermore, Natterer’s bats are characterized by a higher activity at the hibernaculum throughout the hibernation period, while Daubenton’s bats on average arrive earlier, stay inactive through the winter and leave later in spring.
In both species, the aim was to investigate the impact of their individual hibernation behaviour, precisely the timing of departure in late winter and early spring, on mortality, their adjustment of departure timing to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO), as well as differences within and between the two species from 2011 until 2015.
To later on estimate the potential mortality costs of departure timing, gaining knowledge about the seasonal survival pattern (winter vs. summer) in the two species was a first necessity. In birds, particularly small species were described as winter-regulated populations with a higher mortality during winter. In contrast, in hibernating mammal species, such as bats, a relatively lower or similar winter survival compared to summer survival was shown. In this study, the analysed data demonstrated that the winter 2010/2011 was exceptionally catastrophic in Natterer’s bats and did not impact Daubenton’s bats. When excluding this catastrophic winter in Natterer’ bats, our results revealed a stable winter-summer-survival difference (higher winter and lower summer survival) in adult Natterer’s and Daubenton’s bats, with inter-annual variation in the level of survival which indicates a potential environmental impact on survival. This winter-summer survival pattern is in line with the survival pattern shown for other hibernators. Juveniles always had a lower survival rate than adult bats in both species. Nevertheless, the extent to which the species differ between seasons and age classes was stronger in Daubenton’s bats. They always showed a slightly higher winter survival and a lower summer survival than Natterer’s bats. Together with the catastrophic winter 2010/2011 in Natterer’s bats, this indicates a species-specific sensitivity to the timing of specific weather events which is in line with their foraging strategies and activity pattern during hibernation period.
With respect to emergence behaviour from the hibernaculum, the results of this study suggest considerable differences among individuals within as well as between bat species. In comparison to Daubenton’s bats, Natterer’s bats tuned their emergence more closely to weather conditions, specifically the NAO, a large scale weather index related to winter severity, and showed individual variation in behavioural plasticity. In Daubenton’s bats only the females responded to changing conditions and left earlier in individually-experienced warmer and milder winters, comparable to Natterer’s bats females. A potential reason might be reproductive advantages for the females resulting in a longer growing period for their offspring. The shown higher winter survival in adult bats of both species indicated already higher energy expenditure outside the hibernaculum. Thus, leaving early, being active and staying outside longer by itself bore a risk (exposure risk effect). Under consideration of longer exposure times, early departing individuals had on top of that an increased risk to die. This was not given in each year, but a species- and year-specific pattern was revealed. Natterer’s bats were only significantly affected by early departure in 2011, while the remaining years show no significant additional risk of leaving early. In Daubenton’s bats, the years 2014 and 2015 were associated with a significantly higher mortality of leaving early. This is in line with the hypothesis that Daubenton’s bats might not be able to hunt for insects leaving too early and do so as a best out of a bad job. Nevertheless, the year-specific pattern suggests that early bats might profit from advantageous weather conditions during early spring.
An additional hint for an environmental impact on early bat survival in at least Daubenton’s bats is that the median proportion of night hours above 3 °C within five days after departure was included in the model with the lowest AIC. However, the effect was not strong enough to be selected as the best model and, therefore, further analyses are needed to investigate this first hint.
In conclusion, the reduced winter survival of juveniles compared to adults highlights the importance of considering age class effects in studies that investigate seasonal survival patterns. The stable species-specific winter-summer-survival difference with a higher winter survival compared to summer survival, as well as the one catastrophic winter in Natterer’s bats underline the importance of including seasonal survival patterns in assessing potential fitness costs of changed behaviour. Furthermore, our results suggest that long-lived hibernating bat species have the potential to plastically adjust to changing climatic conditions, but this potential differs between species. Among-individual differences in emergence together with species-specific mortality costs of early emergence suggest the potential for natural selection to shape hibernation phenology. In summary, our findings suggest species-, population- and group-specific differences in the ability to respond to changing environments and, therefore, underline the necessity to further investigate local responses in various organisms to estimate consequences of recent climate change on a wider range.
Presumably every organism on earth is involved in at least one mutualistic interaction with one or several other species. To interact with each other, the species need traits that provide benefits to the partner species. Surprisingly, the function of traits for the stabilization of mutualisms has rarely been investigated, despite of a general lack of knowledge how mutualisms are maintained. The aim of this work was to find functional traits, which stabilize the mutualism between a bat species and a carnivorous pitcher plant in Northern Borneo. Kerivoula hardwickii is the only bat species known to roost in pitcher-shaped trapping organs of Palaeotropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes). These bats fertilize the pitcher plant Nepenthes hemsleyana with their nutritious nitrogen-rich faeces while roosting inside the pitchers. The plants have outsourced capture and digestion of arthropod prey to the bats on which they strongly rely for nutrient acquisition. The bats in contrast are less dependent on their mutualism partner as they also roost in pitchers of two further Nepenthes species as well as in developing furled leaves of various plant species in the order Zingiberales. In earlier studies, we found that N. hemsleyana outcompetes alternative roosts by providing high-quality roosts for the bats. However, which traits exactly stabilize the mutualism between K. hardwickii and N. hemsleyana was still unclear. I found that both the bats and the pitcher plants show traits, which have the potential to stabilize their interaction. On the level of morphological traits, I found that the pitchers have a low fluid level and a particular shape that provide just enough roosting space for one individual of the solitary K. hardwickii, a mother with juvenile or a mating couple. The bats have enlarged thumb and foot pads that enable them to cling to the smooth surfaces of their roosts without using their claws. This avoids damage to the sensitive N. hemsleyana pitchers. On the level of communicational traits, again N. hemsleyana acquired morphological structures that act as effective ultrasound-reflectors, which guide the echo-orientating bats to the opening of the pitchers and help the bats to identify their mutualism partner. The bats’ calls on the other hand are characterized by extraordinary high starting frequencies and broad bandwidths, which enable K. hardwickii to easily locate pitchers of N. hemsleyana and other Nepenthes species in their dense habitats. Finally, on the level of behavioural traits the bats often but not always prefer their mutualism partner to other roosts when they can select roosts in their natural environment or in behavioural experiments. The reason for this behaviour seems to be a combination of 1) N. hemsleyana’s superior quality compared to alternative roosts and 2) different roosting traditions of the bats. In conclusion, the mutualism between bats and pitcher plants is asymmetric as N. hemsleyana is more dependent on K. hardwickii than vice versa. For the plants bat faeces present their most important nutrient source. In contrast, K. hardwickii can select between alternative roosting plants. This asymmetric dependency is reflected in the specifity and function of the traits that stabilize the mutualism in each of the two involved species. Especially on the morphological level, N. hemsleyana seems to have evolved several traits that perfectly fit to K. hardwickii. In contrast, the bats’ traits more generally facilitate their roosting in funnel-shaped plant structures and their occurrence in cluttered habitats. Thus, they are probably exaptations (i.e. traits that evolved for another reason) that are nevertheless functional and stabilize the mutualism with N. hemsleyana. This plant‘s superior roost quality is likely a consequence of the competition with alternative roosting plants and is a pre-requisite for the bats to prefer N. hemsleyana. Moreover, my study confirms earlier findings that asymmetric dependencies support the stabilization of mutualistic interactions. Finally, my work indicates that the specifity of functional traits can be used as a measure to determine mutual dependencies of mutualistic partners.