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The immune system of all vertebrates primarily is responsible to maintain the organisms homeostasis by either eliminating neoplastic or altered body cells and to protect against foreign invaders (viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites) (Murphy 2012). It is a highly regulated network of innate and adaptive mechanisms between humoral factors and leukocytes. The successful elimination or protection is crucially based on differentiation of self from non-self. Pathogens and altered body cells are recognized by different receptor complexes on immune cells. Expressed pathogen- or danger-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs or DAMPs, respectively) are bound by pattern recognition receptors (PRR) (Takeuchi and Akira 2010). Missing major histocompatibility (MHC) class I molecules or non-self (e.g. allogeneic or xenogeneic cells) MHC are recognized by natural killer cell receptors (Fischer, Koppang and Nakanishi 2013, Raulet 2006). Foreign non-self peptides are presented through MHC class I (intracellular) or through MHC class II (extracellular) to B- cell or T cell receptor complexes. This initial activation is regulated by humoral factors or cellular interactions (receptor-ligand interactions) resulting in the activation, proliferation and effector function within an immune response. Some of the cellular receptors are permanently expressed on all leukocytes on a high level (MHC class I), whereas others only are expressed during certain developmental or activation stages or on certain leukocyte populations (monocytes, granulocytes, NK cells, lymphocytes) (Murphy 2012, Biosciences 2010). For different mammals (man, mouse, rat, but also swine, cattle, dog), a system of characterized leukocyte surface molecules primarily based on the recognition of these molecules by specific monoclonal antibodies (mabs) was summarized at international workshops as clusters of differentiation (CD) (Cobbold and Metcalfe 1994, Hopkins, Ross and Dutia 1993, Haverson et al. 2001, Mason et al. 2001). Using these mabs, it is not only possible to characterize the developmental and functional stage of different leukocyte subpopulations but also to define the interactions between these populations. For bony fish, such a system does not exist. Only a limited number of mabs against leukocyte surface molecules is available and most of them are strongly specific for species (Köllner et al. 2004, Köllner et al. 2001, Zhang et al. 2010, Ramirez-Gomez et al. 2012, Wen et al. 2011, DeLuca, Wilson and Warr 1983, Toda et al. 2011, Toda et al. 2009, Takizawa et al. 2011a, Hetland et al. 2010, Araki et al. 2008). The goal of this PhD work, therefore, was to develop monoclonal antibodies against surface markers of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) T cell population (chapter 2). The lymphocytes are characterized by the expression of a T cell receptor complex composed of TCR chains (α and β) and CD3 chains (α, β, γ, δ, ε and ζ). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) binds to MHC class I bound peptide on the infected host cell using their T cell receptor (TCR) and its co-receptor CD8 resulting in specific killing. Th cells recognize peptides through their T cell receptor (TCR) and their co-receptor CD4 after extracellular antigens uptake, processing and presentation via MHC class II by professional antigen presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells). During recent years, genes encoding MHC class I and II, TCR and their co-receptors CD8 and CD4 have been cloned in several fish species and antibodies have been developed to study protein expression in morphological and functional contexts. However, mabs specific for TCR or CD3 have not been established yet. Therefore, using pan-T cell marker specific mabs, the activation and kinetics of T cell subpopulation should be investigated (chapter 2). Moreover, a flow cytometry method was established using different lineage marker specific mabs to measure different leukocyte populations and their involvement in immune mechanisms of trout using a single tube assay (chapter 3). The first line of defense against altered body cells or pathogens is provided by evolutionarily ancient macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells. These innate mechanisms are well developed in bony fish. Two types of NK cell homologues have been described in fish: non-specific cytotoxic cells and NK-like cells (Shen et al. 2002, Shen et al. 2003, Shen et al. 2004, Fischer et al. 2013). Functional assays for innate and adaptive lymphocyte responses have been developed in only a few fish species. However, there are no tools available until now in trout to follow these cells directly in the immune response. The molecular characteristics and the expression on leukocyte subpopulations of CD56 were therefore analyzed. Furthermore, a mab that is specific for a molecule expressed only in NK cells but with uncommon expression kinetics was established (chapter 4). Overall, the established tools and methods allow a more detailed characterization of cellular immune mechanisms against intracellular pathogens in rainbow trout.
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) represents the third most produced species of diadromous fish, with the total production of 0,732 million tonnes in 2009. More than one third of this production comes from Europe, where it is dominated by Norway, Italy and France. Germany is the fifth biggest producer in Europe, producing 21 thousand tonnes of rainbow trout in the value of 6,1 million Euro. However, the conditions in the intensive aquaculture often increase the disease susceptibility to many pathogens. One of the highest economic threats for a salmonids aquaculture is the causative agent of furunculosis, Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida. Several strategies have been developed to protect the fish, but the traditional methods are either laborious or represent a potential risk for the environment. The selective breeding established more than 35 years ago in the brackish waters of Baltic Sea represent a attractive alternative, delivering a novel strain of rainbow trout better adapted to the brackish environment and exhibiting reduced mortality in the infection with A.salmonicida. Nevertheless, no information was available about the fundaments of this phenomenon. Thus, the aim of presented study was the identification of immune adaptations, which occurred during the 30 years of selection and favoured increased survival of “born” trout to the bacterial diseas es. In the presented work, the peritoneal cavity of rainbow trout has been used as a model for the investigation of disease resistance in fish. In the first chapter, the peritoneal cavity has been described as a unique niche of teleost immune system and the kinetic of peritoneal leukocytes induced by the stimulation has been analysed. Furthermore, a unique set of monoclonal antibodies has been used to evaluate the contribution of distinct cell populations on the inflammation and its resolution. In the second part of the study, the transcriptional changes of peritoneal leukocytes have been evaluated using the GRASP microarray. The following analysis provided unique insights into the local immune response in rainbow trout. The unprecedented combination of both data sets offers an unparalleled description of the local immune response in teleost fish and can be summarized into following facts. In general, the obtained results revealed, that the unstimulated peritoneal cavity is populated predominantly by lymphocytes with IgM+ Bcells being the major cells type. The rapid changes in the composition induced by the stimulation were underlined by the upregulation of major proinflammatory molecules such as IL1β, IL8 and TNFα within 12hpi. Although the initial phase of the reaction was dominated by myeloid cells, the cavity underwent within 72 hours two complete changes in the composition corresponding with the massive changes in the transcriptome. Eventually, the resolution of inflammation was marked by an increasing number of lymphocytes and correlated with the downregulation of pro-inflammatory genes to the initial level and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL10 and TGFβ. Besides the general observations common to all treatments and both strains, our experiments revealed also remarkable differences between the antigenic stimulation and reaction towards pathogen. From these differences following conclusions can be drawn; the infection induces comparable reaction pattern as the stimulation, although the intensity of the reaction and number of cells is higher. These observations correlated with the higher expression of inflammatory molecules after the infection. Viable bacteria also prolong the myeloid phase of the reaction and delay the resolution of inflammation. Finally, model of peritoneal inflammation caused by A. salmonicida has been applied also to the second strain of rainbow trout, known for its higher resistance to infection. The comparison of obtained data suggested that resistant trout reacted to the antigenic stimulation and infection with a lower number of cells despite minor differences in the expression level of major pro-inflammatory molecules during early stages of the infection. Eventually, the resolution of inflammation and onset of adaptive immune response occurred in resistant trout almost 24 hours earlier and was correlating with an increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL10 and TGFβ. Notably, the increased survival of resistant strain correlates with the increased expression of antibacterial proteins such as NRAMP and hepcidin. Taken together, obtained data provided unprecedented insights into the local immune response in teleost fish and identified features conserved during the selection breeding in the brackish water of Baltic Sea. Additionally, combination of cellular and molecular data elucidates the peritoneal inflammation in fish and suggested high conservation of the immune response in the evolution.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen zu zellulären Abwehrmechanismen der Regenbogenforelle (Oncorhynchus mykiss) während einer Infektion mit dem wirtschaftlich bedeutsamen Virus der Viralen Hämorrhagischen Septikämie (VHSV) durchgeführt. Unter Verwendung eines in vitro-Testsystems zur Erfassung der zellvermittelten Zytotoxizität wurde festgestellt, dass Forellen ab dem 10. Tag nach Infektion antivirale zytotoxische Abwehrzellen generieren. Anfangs lysierten diese zytotoxischen Leukozyten ausschließlich virusinfizierte Targetzellen mit identischem MHC-Klasse-I und erst später nach Zweitinfektion MHC-Klasse-I-inkompatible Zellen. Ein mit dem Anstieg des Zytotoxizitätsvermögens einhergehender Anstieg der CD8α-mRNA-Expression im Verlauf der Infektion deutet auf die Beteiligung spezifischer zytotoxischer Zellen bei der antiviralen Abwehr hin. Eine erneute Infektion bereits infizierter Forellen mit homologem Virus führte bei erhöhter CD8α-mRNA-Expression zu einer gesteigerten zellvermittelten Zytotoxizität. Das deutet darauf hin, dass Forellen, ähnlich wie höhere Vertebraten, über spezifische zytotoxische T-Zellen sowie über ein immunologisches Gedächtnis verfügen. Im Unterschied zu Säugern konnte eine zytotoxische Aktivität gegen MHC-Klasse-I-inkompatible Targetzellen und damit eine Beteiligung von NK-ähnlichen Zellen zeitlich erst nach der T-Zell-ähnlichen Zytotoxizität gemessen werden, wobei ein Anstieg der mRNA-Expression des indirekten NK-Zellmarkers NKEF durch die Effektorzellen bereits zu einem früheren Zeitpunkt erfolgte. NKEF wird bei Säugern von hämatopoetischen Zellen gebildet. Deshalb ist die erhöhte Expression von NKEF als Folge einer kompensatorischen Reaktion bei der hämorrhagischen Erkrankung VHS zu werten. Zum Zeitpunkt der NK-ähnlichen Aktivität hatte das Niveau VHSV-spezifischer Antikörper ein Maximum erreicht, weshalb die Bewaffnung von NK-ähnlichen Zellen mit Antikörpern denkbar ist, die ihrerseits natives VHSV-Protein auf infizierten Targetzellen erkannt und letztere lysiert haben könnten. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war es ferner, den Einfluss des Glyko(G)- beziehungsweise Nukleo(N)-proteins des VHSV auf das zelluläre Abwehrsystem der Forelle zu untersuchen. Dazu wurde die DNA-Immunisierungstechnologie eingesetzt. Nach Applikation von VHSV-Protein-kodierenden Plasmid-DNAs konnte als Voraussetzung für eine erfolgreiche Antigenpräsentation am Applikationsort die Expression viraler Proteine in den Forellenmuskelzellen gezeigt werden. Ebenso generierten Forellen nach Immunisierung antivirale zytotoxische Zellen gegen beide Proteine. Das Glykoprotein, welches nach der Virusreplikation auf der Virushülle und auch auf der Membran infizierter Wirtszellen exprimiert wird, regte die Bildung von virusspezifischen CTL-ähnlichen, aber auch NK-ähnlichen zytotoxischen Effektorzellen an, da zytotoxische Zellen aus DNA-immunisierten Forellen sowohl infizierte MHC-Klasse-I-identische als auch Zellen mit einem anderen MHC-Klasse-I lysierten. Das Nukleoprotein dagegen bewirkte lediglich die Bildung CTL-ähnlicher Zellen, da ausschließlich MHC-Klasse-I-kompatible Zellen lysiert wurden. Diese Aktivität erreichte nur in den Sommermonaten ein signifikantes Niveau. Solche, bei poikilothermen Vertebraten zu erwartenden saisonbedingten Schwankungen im Niveau und in der Qualität antiviraler zellvermittelter Zytotoxizität, sind bei Fischen bisher nicht beschrieben worden. Diese Unterschiede sind umso bemerkenswerter, als dass die Forellen ganzjährig einem konstanten Temperatur- und Lichtregime ausgesetzt waren. Die Kombination eines Testsystems für zellvermittelte Zytotoxizität mit Untersuchungen zur mRNA-Expression, zum Antikörperstatus und zur Expression von Leukozyten-Oberflächenmarkern lassen bei paralleler Analyse bereits veröffentlichter Daten wichtige Schlussfolgerungen zum allgemeinen Verständnis der Immunreaktionen bei Fischen zu. Es sind Parallelen aber auch Unterschiede (verspätete NK-zellähnliche Aktivität, Saisonabhängigkeit) zum Immunsystem höherer Vertebraten feststellbar. Ferner leisten diese Ergebnisse einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Pathogenese der VHS und geben Anhaltspunkte für Vakzinationsstrategien insbesondere von DNA-Vakzinen.