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In den letzten Jahren erhöhte sich die Inzidenz des humanen hepatozellulären Karzinoms in nicht-zirrhotischen Lebern bei gleichzeitigem Diabetes mellitus Typ 2 deutlich. Im Hepatokarzinogenesemodell nach intraportaler Pankreasinseltransplantation in der diabetischen Ratte konnte Prof. Dr. F. Dombrowski durch eine kombinierte Hyperinsulinämie und Hyperglykämie glykogen- und lipidreiche, klarzellige Herde induzieren, sogenannte clear cell foci (CCF), die sich in Langzeitexperimenten zu hepatozellulären Adenomen und Karzinomen entwickelten. Sowohl in den CCF als auch in humanen und rodenten hepatozellulären Karzinomen fand sich eine Heraufregulation des Transkriptionsfaktors carbohydrat-responsive element-binding proteins (ChREBP), der glukoseabhängig und insulinunabhängig Enzyme der Glykolyse und Lipogenese reguliert. Das Inseltransplantationsmodell wurde anschließend auf die Maus unter Verwendung von 70 transplantierten Inseln übertragen, wobei die Frequenz der CCF sehr niedrig und die Anzahl thrombosebedingten Leberzellnekrosen hoch war. Das primäre Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit war es, die Frequenz der CCF am Modelltier Maus zu steigern. Mit der These, eine erhöhte transplantierte Inselanzahl führt zu einer höheren Frequenz der CCF, modifizierte ich die Inselisolationsprozesse systematisch, um qualitativ hochwertige und vom exokrinen Pankreasgewebe bereinigte Inseln zu erhalten. Anschließend schloss ich anhand immunhistochemischer Reaktionen und Vitalitätstests mögliche schädliche Einflüsse der Isolation aus. Ich konnte somit die Anzahl auf 120 und 200 Inseln erhöhen, die Streptozotocin-diabetischen Wildtyp (WT) - und ChREBP-Knockout-Mäusen intraportal transplantiert wurden, ohne Leberzellnekrosen zu induzieren. Nicht-transplantierte Kontrollgruppen blieben vier Wochen lang hyperglykämisch. Nach einer und nach vier Wochen konnte ich klarzellige Leberherde in transplantierten WT-Mäusen histologisch, immunhistochemisch und elektronenmikroskopisch nachweisen, die den klassischen CCF entsprachen. Durch Erhöhung der Inselzahl konnte ich eine tendenziell jedoch nicht signifikant erhöhte Frequenz der CCF erreichen. Nach vier Wochen kam es bei diabetischen transplantierten ChREBP-Knockoutmäusen ebenfalls zur Induktion klarzelliger Herde, die sich durch eine enorme Glykogenakkumulation, fehlende Lipidspeicherung und eine erniedrigte Proliferationsaktivität von den WT-CCF unterschieden. Durch diese Ergebnisse konnte ChREBP als Vermittler zwischen proliferationsärmeren, glykogenreichen und proliferationsaktiveren, lipidreicheren hepatischen Läsionen charakterisieren. Das primäre Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit, die Frequenz der CCF signifikant zu erhöhen, konnte nicht erreicht werden, jedoch durch ein verringertes Transplantatvolumen der Weg für Folgeexperimente mit erhöhter Inselzahl sowie für Langzeitexperimente geebnet werden.
Bei der Entstehung des hepatozellulären Karzinoms (HCC) nimmt das metabolische Syndrom zunehmend einen bedeutenden Risikofaktor ein. In diesem Zusammenhang konnte ein von F. Dombrowski et al. entwickeltes Tiermodell darstellen, dass nach intraportaler Pankreasinseltransplantation durch erhöhte Insulin- und Glukosekonzentrationen sehr frühe präneoplastische Läsionen in der Leber entstehen, die sich zu hepatozellulären Karzinomen weiterentwickelt haben. Dieses hormonelle Karzinogenesemodell konnte von S. Ribback et al. bereits erfolgreich auf die Maus übertragen und mit einem ChREBP-Knockoutmodell erweitert werden.
In meiner Arbeit sollte die Häufigkeit dieser Leberherde im Mausmodell erhöht werden, um deren Signifikanz in der experimentellen Hepatokarzinogenese ermitteln zu können.
Es konnte in dieser Arbeit eine präoperative subkutane Insulinbehandlung etabliert werden, um den Blutzucker innerhalb von fünf Tagen bei diabetischen WT- (C57BL/6J) und ChREBP-KO-Mäusen auf normoglykäme Werte zu halten. Das Ziel, die Häufigkeit präneoplastischer CCF in der Leber bei den WT-Mäusen zu erhöhen, konnte jedoch mit der subkutanen Insulintherapie nicht erreicht werden. Des Weiteren stellte sich die subkutane Insulintherapie aufgrund starker Blutzuckerschwankungen als eine ungeeignete Behandlungsmethode dar.
Durch die Behandlung mit Insulinsticks konnte jedoch der Blutzuckerspiegel auf konstante Werte eingestellt werden. Damit konnte eine geeignete Methode gefunden werden, um die diabetischen Komplikationen für spätere Langzeitversuche zu minimieren und ein langes Überleben der Versuchstiere zu gewährleisten.
In der Leber diabetischer ChREBP-KO-Mäuse entstanden spontane glykogenotische Veränderungen, die zuvor in dieser Form noch nicht beschrieben wurden, von kleinen herdförmigen Glykogenspeicherherden bis hin zu einer diffusen Glykogenose der Leber. Innerhalb dieser diffusen Glykogenose bestand eine leichte steatohepatitis-ähnliche Entzündung und es konnte eine gesteigerte Proliferationsaktivität nachgewiesen werden, was eine Tumorentstehung begünstigen könnte. ChREBP könnte daher, neben seinen bislang nachgewiesenen protoonkogenen Eigenschaften, auch tumorsuppressive Funktionen in der Leber haben.
In dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss des Transkriptionsfaktors Carbohydrate responsive element binding protein (ChREBP) auf die experimentelle Hepatokarzinogenese untersucht, der eine wichtige Rolle in der protoonkogenen AKT/mTOR-vermittelten Karzinogenese der Leber spielen soll.
Dazu diente das Pankreasinseltransplantationsmodell bei diabetischen C57Bl/6J- Wildtyp- (WT; n = 180) und ChREBP-Knockout-Mäusen (KO; n = 143). Es erfolgten histologische, proliferationskinetische, immunhistochemische und Western-Blot- Analysen.
Das Hauptergebnis dieser Arbeit stellt die Hyperproliferation im Lebergewebe der diabetischen, transplantierten Mäuse dar, aus der sich klarzellige Leberherde (CCF) und im weiteren Verlauf auch hepatozelluläre Adenome (HCA) und Karzinome (HCC) entwickelten. Die Proliferationsaktivität lag in den Herden der Knockout- Mäuse bei 21,77 ± 3,38 % (Mittelwert ± S.E.M.), in denen der Wildtyp-Mäuse bei 29,04 ± 11,97 %. Die Leberherde unterschieden sich in ihrer Morphologie: Die Herde der KO-Mäuse waren kleiner und sie zeigten nur eine starke Glykogenspeicherung, während die Herde der Wildtyp-Mäuse neben dem Glykogen auch viel Fett speicherten.
Die Entstehung manifester Tumoren setzte im Knockout-Stamm später ein und die Tumoren wiesen auch ein langsameres Wachstum auf. Tumoren entstanden nicht nur in diabetischen, transplantierten Mäusen (WT-HCC n = 3; KO-HCC n = 1; KO-HCA n = 2), sondern auch in diabetischen Wildtyp-Kontrollmäusen (n = 4), aber nicht bei diabetischen KO-Tieren. Immunhistochemisch konnte in den Tumoren des KO- Stamms eine verminderte Glykolyse und de novo Lipogenese sowie ein herunterregulierter AKT/mTOR-Signalweg nachgewiesen werden.
Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf einen protoonkogenen Charakter von ChREBP zum einen in der hormonell-induzierten Hepatokarzinogenese, aber auch in einem metabolischen Karzinogeneseprozess im Rahmen eines Insulinmangeldiabetes hin. Der Einfluss von ChREBP auf den Energiestoffwechsel der Zelle und auf den metabolischen Switch vom glykogenotischen zum lipogenen Phänotyp in der experimentellen Hepatokarzinogenese-Sequenz scheint essentiell zu sein. Der Knockout von ChREBP reduziert dementsprechend die Proliferation im Lebergewebe und scheint die Hepatokarzinogenese in diesem Modell zu verzögern.
GPR68 (OGR1) belongs to the proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptors that are involved
in cellular adaptations to pH changes during tumour development. Although expression of GPR68
has been described in many tumour cell lines, little is known about its presence in human tumour
entities. We characterised the novel rabbit monoclonal anti-human GPR68 antibody 16H23L16
using various cell lines and tissue specimens. The antibody was then applied to a large series of
formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded normal and neoplastic human tissue samples. Antibody specificity
was demonstrated in a Western blot analysis of GPR68-expressing cells using specific siRNAs.
Immunocytochemical experiments revealed pH-dependent changes in subcellular localisation of the
receptor and internalisation after stimulation with lorazepam. In normal tissue, GPR68 was present in
glucagon-producing islet cells, neuroendocrine cells of the intestinal tract, gastric glands, granulocytes,
macrophages, muscle layers of arteries and arterioles, and capillaries. GPR68 was also expressed
in neuroendocrine tumours, where it may be a positive prognostic factor, in pheochromocytomas,
cervical adenocarcinomas, and endometrial cancer, as well as in paragangliomas, medullary thyroid
carcinomas, gastrointestinal stromal tumours, and pancreatic adenocarcinomas. Often, tumour
capillaries were also strongly GPR68-positive. The novel antibody 16H23L16 will be a valuable tool for
basic research and for identifying GPR68-expressing tumours during histopathological examinations.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a deadly form of liver malignancy with limited treatment
options. Amplification and/or overexpression of c-MYC is one of the most frequent genetic events
in human HCC. The mammalian target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) is a major functional
axis regulating various aspects of cellular growth and metabolism. Recently, we demonstrated that
mTORC1 is necessary for c-Myc driven hepatocarcinogenesis as well as for HCC cell growth in vitro.
Among the pivotal downstream effectors of mTORC1, upregulation of Fatty Acid Synthase (FASN) and
its mediated de novo lipogenesis is a hallmark of human HCC. Here, we investigated the importance
of FASN on c-Myc-dependent hepatocarcinogenesis using in vitro and in vivo approaches. In mouse
and human HCC cells, we found that FASN suppression by either gene silencing or soluble inhibitors
more effectively suppressed proliferation and induced apoptosis in the presence of high c-MYC
expression. In c-Myc/Myeloid cell leukemia 1 (MCL1) mouse liver tumor lesions, FASN expression
was markedly upregulated. Most importantly, genetic ablation of Fasn profoundly delayed (without
abolishing) c-Myc/MCL1 induced HCC formation. Liver tumors developing in c-Myc/MCL1 mice
depleted of Fasn showed a reduction in proliferation and an increase in apoptosis when compared
with corresponding lesions from c-Myc/MCL1 mice with an intact Fasn gene. In human HCC samples,
a significant correlation between the levels of c-MYC transcriptional activity and the expression
of FASN mRNA was detected. Altogether, our study indicates that FASN is an important effector
downstream of mTORC1 in c-MYC induced HCC. Targeting FASN may be helpful for the treatment
of human HCC, at least in the tumor subset displaying c-MYC amplification or activation.
EGFR is overexpressed in the majority of clear cell renal cell carcinomas (CCRCCs). Although EGFR deregulation was found to be of great significance in CCRCC biology, the EGFR
overexpression is not associated with EGFR-targeted therapy responsiveness. Moreover, the prognostic role of EGFR expression remains controversial. In the present study, we evaluated the role
played by EGFR overexpression in CCRCC and its prognostic significance associated with different
immunohistochemical localization patterns. In our study, the Total Score (TS) related to membranouscytoplasmic EGFR expression showed a significant correlation with grade, pathologic stage (pT),
and Stage, Size, Grade, and Necrosis (SSIGN) score, and a negative correlation with nuclear EGFR
expression. No significant correlations were shown between nuclear EGFR and clinic-pathological
features. Additionally, a correlation between SGLT1 expression levels and pT was described. Multivariate analysis identifies pT and SSIGN score as independent prognostic factors for CCRCC. A
significantly increased survival rate was found in the case of positive expression of nuclear EGFR
and SGLT1. Based on our findings, SGLT1 and nuclear EGFR overexpression defines a subgroup of
CCRCC patients with good prognosis. Membranous-cytoplasmic EGFR expression was shown to be
a poor prognostic factor and could define a CCRCC subgroup with poor prognosis that should be
responsive to anti-EGFR therapies
FAM159B is a so-called adaptor protein. These proteins are essential components in numerous cell signalling pathways. However, little is known regarding FAM159B expression in normal and neoplastic human tissues. The commercially available rabbit polyclonal anti-human FAM159B antibody HPA011778 was initially characterised for its specificity using Western blot analyses and immunocytochemistry and then applied to a large series of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded normal and neoplastic human tissue samples. Confirmation of FAM159B’s predicted size and antibody specificity was achieved in BON-1 cells, a neuroendocrine tumour cell line endogenously expressing FAM159B, using targeted siRNA. Immunocytochemical experiments additionally revealed cytoplasmic expression of the adaptor protein. Immunohistochemical staining detected FAM159B expression in neuronal and neuroendocrine tissues such as the cortex, the trigeminal ganglia, dorsal root and intestinal ganglia, the pancreatic islets and the neuroendocrine cells of the bronchopulmonary and gastrointestinal tract, but also in the syncytiotrophoblasts of the placenta. FAM159B was also expressed in many of the 28 tumour entities investigated, with high levels in medullary and anaplastic thyroid carcinomas, parathyroid adenomas, lung and ovarian carcinomas, lymphomas and neuroendocrine tumours of different origins. The antibody HPA011778 can act as a useful tool for basic research and identifying FAM159B expression in tissue samples.
Simple Summary
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most deadly cancers worldwide. The occurrence of oncogenic KRAS mutations is considered a signature event in PDAC, leading to genomic instability. The aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of the oncogenic KRAS G12D mutation on the activity of the error-prone alt-EJ repair mechanism, and to investigate the potential role of Polθ in the development of pancreatic cancer. We found that oncogenic KRAS increases the expression of key alt-EJ proteins in a mouse and human PDAC model. Using TLR assay, we also found increased alt-EJ activity in mouse and human cell lines upon the expression of KRAS D12D. The inactivation/impairment of alt-EJ by polymerase theta (Polθ) depletion delays the development of pancreatic cancer and prolongs the survival of experimental mice, though it does not prevent the PDAC development, which leads to full-blown PDAC with disseminated metastasis. Our studies provide a high-value target as a novel therapeutic candidate for the treatment of pancreatic and other cancers.
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), due to its genomic heterogeneity and lack of effective treatment, despite decades of intensive research, will become the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths by 2030. Step-wise acquisition of mutations, due to genomic instability, is considered to drive the development of PDAC; the KRAS mutation occurs in 95 to 100% of human PDAC, and is already detectable in early premalignant lesions designated as pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN). This mutation is possibly the key event leading to genomic instability and PDAC development. Our study aimed to investigate the role of the error-prone DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) repair pathway, alt-EJ, in the presence of the KRAS G12D mutation in pancreatic cancer development. Our findings show that oncogenic KRAS contributes to increasing the expression of Polθ, Lig3, and Mre11, key components of alt-EJ in both mouse and human PDAC models. We further confirm increased catalytic activity of alt-EJ in a mouse and human model of PDAC bearing the KRAS G12D mutation. Subsequently, we focused on estimating the impact of alt-EJ inactivation by polymerase theta (Polθ) deletion on pancreatic cancer development, and survival in genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) and cancer patients. Here, we show that even though Polθ deficiency does not fully prevent the development of pancreatic cancer, it significantly delays the onset of PanIN formation, prolongs the overall survival of experimental mice, and correlates with the overall survival of pancreatic cancer patients in the TCGA database. Our study clearly demonstrates the role of alt-EJ in the development of PDAC, and alt-EJ may be an attractive therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer patients.
In addition to the classical oestrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, a G protein-coupled oestrogen receptor (GPER) has been identified that primarily mediates the rapid, non-genomic signalling of oestrogens. Data on GPER expression at the protein level are contradictory; therefore, the present study was conducted to re-evaluate GPER expression by immunohistochemistry to obtain broad GPER expression profiles in human non-neoplastic and neoplastic tissues, especially those not investigated in this respect so far. We developed and thoroughly characterised a novel rabbit monoclonal anti-human GPER antibody, 20H15L21, using Western blot analyses and immunocytochemistry. The antibody was then applied to a large series of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded human tissue samples. In normal tissue, GPER was identified in distinct cell populations of the cortex and the anterior pituitary; islets and pancreatic ducts; fundic glands of the stomach; the epithelium of the duodenum and gallbladder; hepatocytes; proximal tubules of the kidney; the adrenal medulla; and syncytiotrophoblasts and decidua cells of the placenta. GPER was also expressed in hepatocellular, pancreatic, renal, and endometrial cancers, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours, and pheochromocytomas. The novel antibody 20H15L21 will serve as a valuable tool for basic research and the identification of GPER-expressing tumours during histopathological examinations.
The utilization of fluorescein-guided biopsies has recently been discussed to improve and expedite operative techniques in the detection of tumor-positive tissue, as well as to avoid making sampling errors. In this study, we aimed to report our experience with fluorescein-guided biopsies and elucidate distribution patterns in different histopathological diagnoses in order to develop strategies to increase the efficiency and accuracy of this technique. We report on 45 fluorescence-guided stereotactic biopsies in 44 patients (15 female, 29 male) at our institution from March 2016 to March 2021, including 25 frame-based stereotactic biopsies and 20 frameless image-guided biopsies using VarioGuide®. A total number of 347 biopsy samples with a median of 8 samples (range: 4–18) per patient were evaluated for intraoperative fluorescein uptake and correlated to definitive histopathology. The median age at surgery was 63 years (range: 18–87). Of the acquired specimens, 63% were fluorescein positive. Final histopathology included glioblastoma (n = 16), B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (n = 10), astrocytoma, IDH-mutant WHO grade III (n = 6), astrocytoma, IDH-mutant WHO grade II (n = 1), oligodendroglioma, IDH-mutant and 1p/19q-codeleted WHO grade II (n = 2), reactive CNS tissue/inflammation (n = 4), post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD; n = 2), ependymoma (n = 1), infection (toxoplasmosis; n = 1), multiple sclerosis (n = 1), and metastasis (n = 1). The sensitivity for high-grade gliomas was 85%, and the specificity was 70%. For contrast-enhancing lesions, the specificity of fluorescein was 84%. The number needed to sample for contrast-enhancing lesions was three, and the overall number needed to sample for final histopathological diagnosis was five. Interestingly, in the astrocytoma, IDH-mutant WHO grade III group, 22/46 (48%) demonstrated fluorescein uptake despite no evidence for gadolinium uptake, and 73% of these were tumor-positive. In our patient series, fluorescein-guided stereotactic biopsy increases the likelihood of definitive neuropathological diagnosis, and the number needed to sample can be reduced by 50% in contrast-enhancing lesions.